Vocalism

Introductory remarks

Pārsīg phonology will be outlined in its ultimate stage. The study of historical phonology of Pārsīg and also implications of Pārsīg prosodic structure needs another work.

§ 1.1.

In Pārsīg, weight to stress principle at the word level is right to left and iterative. Most words have only one stress which normally occurs on the ultima, for example, gōspénd (or, gōs.Ꞌpend) ‘cattle’, vazúrg (or, va.Ꞌzurg) ‘great’, meníšn (or, me.Ꞌnišn) ‘mind, thought’. Stress can fall on several syllables of a word. Alternating secondary stress is found in polysyllabic content words –an acute mark indicates primary accent, and a grave mark secondary accent, or a lowered line is used for secondary stress, and a raised line for primary stress –, for example, vazùrgmeníšn (or, va.Ꞌzurg.me.Ꞌnišn) ‘high-minded, magnanimous’, àbārī́g ‘other’.

Content words possess stress, while grammatical words, such as articles, (enclitic) pronouns, adpositions, and auxiliary verbs, are often stressless in the presence of a stressed content word. However, when such a grammatical word is used by itself, it may receive stress: mán ‘I’, dḗn ‘religion’, man dḗn ‘my religion’.

§ 1.2. Glottal epenthesis.

A glottal stop may be inserted at the beginning of a vowel-initial syllable:

abārīg ‘other’ is represented with its syllabification as ˁa.bā.rī́g.

§ 1.3.

In the transparent compounds, the members may keep the accent on the same syllable of the simple word, with this difference that the accents before the last syllables become secondary:

nḕst.yàzd.gób ‘atheist’.

§ 1.4.

Words in vocative state take the accent on the first syllable:

ohr.mázd ‘Ahura Mazdā’,

óhr.mazd! ‘O Ahura Mazdā!’

Exclamations also have initial stress:

ḗn.ak ‘lo! Behold!’,

ṓh.bēh! ‘so be it! Amen!’.

§ 1.5.

In Pārsīg, meter is not respecter of word boundaries, that is, it allows syllabification to cross word boundaries freely. Metrical patterns are formally independent of stress rules. Moreover, there is not a gap between lyric verse (i.e., verse intended to be set to music) and the other types of art verse.

§ 1.6.

The Pārsīg phonemes are arranged phonetically in tables 1 and 2.

2. Vocalism

Table 1. Vowels

ㅤ	Front	Central	Back
ㅤ	Unrounded	ㅤ	Rounded

High (short)	i	ㅤ	u
(long)	ī	ㅤ	ū
Mid (short)	e	(ǝ)	o
(long)	ē	ㅤ	ō
Low (short)	ㅤ	a	ㅤ
(long)	ㅤ	ā	ㅤ

Thus, according to this table, [ i ] is a high front unrounded vowel, while [ u ] is a high back rounded vowel.

§ 2.1. a

The old vowel phoneme /a/ is in general retained unchanged:

andar ‘in, among, within’ < *antar (OPers. antar, Av. aṇtarǝ, Skt. antár, Paz. aṇdar, Pers. در , اندر ).

astag ‘bone; (fruit) stone’ < *ást-a-ka- (Av. ast- nt. ‘bone, body’, Skt. ásthi- nt., Sogd. ǝstǝk, astē, Khot. āstaa-, Khwar. ǝstag, Yaγ. sitak, Sangl. ostǒk, Pers. هسته ).

mard (also mird) ‘man, male person; (foot) soldier’ < *martii̯a- (OPers. martiya-, Av. maṣya- m., Skt. mártya-, Bactr. μαρδο, Sogd. mart-, Yaγ. mōrti/ mārti).

2.1.1. Sporadic shortening of *ā:

Baxl top. ‘Bactria’ < *bāxθrī- (OPers. bāxtriš, Av. bāxδī-, Bactr. βαχλο, Pers. بلخ ).

framadār (also framādār) title ‘governor, ἐπίτροπος’ < *framātār-am (OPers. framātar- m., Bactr. φρομαλαρο, φραμαλαρο, Talm. hrmdr, cf. Skt. pra-mātṛ-),

abar-framadār ‘who is in command (of)’,

vazurg framadār ‘chancellor’ = bidaxš (Armen. vzruk hramatar).

hurām, also huram/ xuram ‘very delightful, merry, cheerful’ < *hu-rāman- (Skt. su-rāman- adj., Paz. xūram, Pers. خرم ).

ma (prohibitive) ‘not, let not’ < mā (OPers. mā, Av. mā, Skt. mā́, Paz. ma);

mā agar (adversative) ‘unless, if not; hopefully not’ (cf. Parāčī magma ‘perhaps’), first becomes ma agar, and then is reduced to Pers. magar.

2.1.2. Sometimes, an initial *u becomes a:

¹abar ‘upper, superior’ < *upara- (Av. upara- adj., Skt. úpara-, Paz. aβar),

abargar/ abargār ‘ingenious’ < *upara-kari̯a- (Av. uparō.kairya- adj. ‘of high office’).

²abar ‘over, upon, above’ < *upari (OPers. upariy, Av. upairi, Skt. upári, Paz. aβar),

Abarsēn name of a mountain (Av. upāiri.saēna- lit. ‘above the eagles’).

abāy- ‘to please; be necessary’ < *upa- + H(a)i̯a- (cf. OPers. upāyam, Paz. āβāy-).

abestāg ‘Avesta’ < *upastāu̯aka- (Paz. aβastā).

abestām ‘trust; resignation; refuge’ < *upa-stā-m and *upa-sthāna- ( OPers. upastā- f., upastām acc. sg., Av. upastā-, upastąm, Skt. upástha- m. ‘sheltered place’, upasathā́na- m. ‘approach; abode’, Armen. apastan ‘place of security, refuge’, Paz. aβastąm, Pers. اوستام ≈ Arab. توکّل ).

abxvān-/ abxvandan ‘to cry, call, shout’ < *upa-hu̯an-ai̯a-.

abzār ‘powerful’ < *upa-zāu̯ar-(a)-.

2.1.3. The initial *ha sometimes becomes a:

agar ‘if’ < *hakṛt (OPers. hakaram ‘once’, Av. hakǝrǝt̰, Skt. sakŕ̥t adv. ‘once, all of a sudden’, Parth. ag).

angubēn ‘honey’ < *hangu-pai̯na- lit. ‘bee milk’ (registered in the lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria <ἀγγοπήνια>· τὰ τῶν μελισσῶν κηρία, Paz. aṇgaβīn, aṇgvīn, Sogd. angupēn, Kurd. hingivīn, Yidγā agibīn, cf. Av. paēnaēna- adj. ‘consisting of honey’, Bal. bēnaγ ‘honey, beehive’),

magas ī angubēn ‘bee’ (Bal. bēnag-makask).

az ‘from, of, out of’ < *hacā (OPers. hacā, Av. hacā, Skt. sácā, Parth. až, Paz. ǝž).

2.1.4 The sequence **au̯a* occasionally becomes a:

and ‘as much, as many’ < *au̯ant- (cf. Av. avaṇt-, Parth. avend, Paz. aṇd, see ŠKZ 4 ʾndy: ʾwnt: τὰ τοσαῦτα).

aˁōn/ ōn ‘of such a kind, so, as’ < *au̯a-gau̯nam < *au̯āt-gau̯nam (Paz. aβą, Parth. avāγōn).

§ 2.2. ā

The old ā is almost always preserved:

ābād ‘prosperous, populous, flourishing’ < *ā-pātā- (Sogd. āpāt, Armen. apat, Paz. āβāδ).

āzād ‘noble; free’ < *ā-zāta- (Av. āzāta- adj. ‘high-born’, Armen. azat, Paz. āžāt̰).

dādār ‘giver; creator’ < *dātāram (Av. dātar-, dātārǝm, Skt. dātā́ram, Gr. δώτορα).

rām ‘peace’ < *rāman- (Av. rāman- nt.).

2.2.1. The preposition/ preverb **abi* ‘to, towards, over’ (OPers. abi°, abiy, Av. aiβi/ G aibī, Skt. abhi) may be reduced to ā:

ācār ‘(high and low) ground’ < *abi-cāri- (OPers. a-b-i-c-r-i-š, Parth. ʾʾcʾr /ācār/, bun ud ācār, Pers. آچار ).

zamīg ī saxt ayāb narm ayāb ācār. Dk viii, M 702

ādōg/ ādūg (also ādag) ‘capable, competent’ < *abi-tau̯Haka- (cf. Av. aiβi.tū ‘to be capable’, Parth. ādag, Armen. atak ‘capable, clever’, Paz. atū).

ānam-/ ānaftan ‘to get at, approach’ < *abi-nam-a- (Parth. aβnam-, Skt. abhi-nam ‘to bow towards’, abhi-nata- adj.).

¹āvām ‘time, age, season; temporal world’ < *abi-gāma- (Av. aiβi.gāma- m. ‘winter; year’, Parth. āγām, Paz. ōγąm, cf. Saka ōgāmia adj. ‘permanent, lasting’), cf. hangām.

²āvām ‘torment, hardship’ < *abi-gāma- (Parth. aβγām, Sogd. ōγām).

āyād ‘memory’ < *abi-i̯āti- (registered in the lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria <ἀβιάτακα>· μνήμονα. from OPers. *abiyātaka- < *abi-i̯āta- ‘having good memory’, Parth. aβyād, Sogd. aβyāt, Paz. ayād, cf. Armen. aweta-ran ‘gospel’ < *au̯ii̯āta-dāna-),

an-āyād ‘unremembered, forgotten’ (Parth. anaβyād),

anāyāttar comp.

āyās-/ āyāstan ‘to remember, be mindful (of)’ old inch. < *abi-Hi̯aH (Parth. aβyās-).

āyēn (also ēvēn) ‘custom, habit, rule, law; tradition; mode, kind; assignment’ < *abi-dai̯(a)na- (Parth. aβδēn, Paz. āīn, Armen. òrēn-kʿ ‘law, rule, order, regulation; statute, code’, Pers. آیین , آذین ).

āzāy-/ āzūdan ‘to increase, add’ (also abzāy-/ abzūdan) < *abi-jāu̯-ai̯a- (OPers. abijāvaya-, Parth. aβγāv-, cf. Paz. azāišnī).

2.2.2. Sporadic cases of lengthening of the old morpheme a:

amāvand ‘strong, mighty’ < *amáu̯ant- < *ámau̯ant- (Av. amavaṇt-/ G ə̄mavaṇt-, Skt. ámavant-).

āsmān ‘sky, heaven’ (also asmān) < *ásman-, *ásmānam < *aśman- (OPers. asman- m., asmānam acc. sg., Av. asman-, asmanǝm, Skt. áśman-, áśmānam, Baš. yahmōn, Bal. āžmān, Paz. āsmąn, cf. Osset. I az, D anz ‘year’).

kārd ‘a weapon with a blade, knife’ < *kárta- (Av. karǝta-, Tokh. B kertte ‘sword’, Sogd. kart, Yaγnōbī kōrt, Osset. kard ‘knife; sabre’, Bal. kārč, Pašt. čāṛa).

nāxun ‘nail’ < *naxan/r- (Skt. nakhá-, Parth. naxun, Sogd. nāxan, Khot. nāhune ‘nails’, Khwar. nʾxk ‘claw’, nʾxn ‘nail’, Bal. nakun, naxun ‘fingernail’ Paz. nāxun, nāhun).

2.2.3. Contraction of the sequences **āi̯a*, **āu̯a*, **āu̯i*, **au̯ā* to ā:

abestāg ‘Avesta, collection of texts in Avesta language; Avesta prayer’ < upa-stāu̯a-ka- ‘praise (text)’ or upa-stā-ka- ‘base (text)’ (Pers. اوستا, ابستاغ، ابستا، استا . Paz. aβastā).

abzār ‘powerful, strong’ < *upa-zāu̯ar-a-;

nizār ‘powerless, feeble, weak’ < *ni-zāu̯ar-a- (Parth. nizāvar, Paz. nazār).

āvarzōg, later ārzōg ‘aspiration, wish, desire; lust’ < *ā-u̯arjau̯a-ka- (Parth. āvaržōg, Paz. ārzū, cf. Sogd. āβǝrǝxsē, Khot. aursa-, orsa-).

afsān ‘fable, story; incantation’ < *upa-çāu̯ana- (cf. Av. upa-sru),

afsānag ‘fable; narrative’ (Persian of Sēstān āsōka ‘fable’).

āškār ‘clear, patent, manifest; public’ < *āu̯iš-kāra-, *āu̯iš adv. ‘apparently’ (Av. āviš adv., Skt. āviṣ ‘openly, manifestly’, āviṣ-kāra- m. ‘manifestation’, Armen. aškarai adv. ‘openly’).

bāk ‘fear, care’ < *bāi̯aka-.

bāzā, possibly also bāzāv (also bāzūg) ‘arm’ < *bāzu-, *bāzāu̯am (Av. bāzu- m., Skt. bāhú-, Sogd. βāzā).

jār ‘time, occasion’ < *i̯āu̯ar[a]- (Parth. yāvar, Paz. jāvar, Kurd. jār).

niyāg ‘grandfather; grandmother; ancestor’ < *nii̯āka- (OPers. niyāka- ‘grandfather’, apaniyāka- ‘great grandfather’, Av. nyāka- m., nyākā- f., Sogd. nyāk, Bactr. νιιαγο, Pašt. nīkǝ, Bal. N nāxō m., nakh f., Pers. ) possibly from *nii̯-āu̯a-ka- < *h2euh2os (cf. Hitt. huhhas, Lat. avus ‘grandfather’).

šāh ‘king’ < *xšāi̯aθi̯a- (OPers. xšāyaθiya-).

šnār ‘sinew’ < *snāu̯ar- (Av. snāvarǝ, Skt. snāvan- nt.).

šnāy- ‘to be hospitable, welcome, entertain, satisfy’ < *xšnāu̯-ai̯a- (Av. xšnāvaya- pres.).

visān ‘(place of) rest, resting place’ < *u̯isāi̯ana-,

cf. visāy-/ visādan ‘to lie down, rest’.

zahār ‘womb; pubis’ < *zaha-u̯āra-.

2.2.4. ā < āi, āu

garān ‘heavy; grave’ < *garāu-na- from *garu- (Sogd. γrān, Paz. garą).

vāspuhr ‘prince’ < *u̯āisapuθri- a vṛddhi formation from *u̯isah puθra (vispuhr ‘prince’, cf. Av. vīsō puθrǝm).

2.2.5. ā < ah

ā ‘then’ < ah < *aθa (Av. aθa/ G aθā, Skt. átha, Paz. ą),

agar … ā ‘if … then’ (Av. hakǝrǝt̰ … aθa).

hamāl ‘peer, equal; comrade’ < *ham-ahl < *ham-arθa-.

The treatment of -hr after a shows vacillation about the presence of h – the alternatives are ahr or ār:

hazār < *ha-zahra- (Av. hazaŋra-, Skt. sahásra-).

kahrēz/ kārēz ‘channel, drain, subterranean canal’ < kanθ(ra)rai̯ca- (Kirmānī kahrēz, kahn).

mār ‘meter’ < *māθrā- (Skt. mātrā- f. ‘measure, size’, Armen. mar rendering Gr. μετρητής ‘meter, counter’, cf. Gr.-Pers. μάρις, μάρης),

Mārī pr. n. < *māθrii̯a- (cf. Skt. mā́tṛi- m. ‘measurer, knower’).

mahr/ mār (also mānsr) ‘(sacred) formula; (short) hymn’ < *mánθra- (Av. mąθra- m., Skt. mántra-),

mahrespend/ mārespend ‘holy formula; name of a day’ (Paz. māraspiṇd),

mahrigar ‘soothsayer’ (Sogd. mārkarē ‘incantator, magician’, Parth. mārigar, Armen. margarē ‘prophet, seer’).

mārīg ‘simple word; morpheme’ < *mahrīk < *manθr-ii̯a-ka-.

pahr (also pāhr, pās) ‘watch-post, guard (-house)’ < *pāθra- (Av. pāθra- nt., Sogd. pāθr, pārθ, pāšē, Armen. parh, pah).

rag/ rahag/ rāg ‘vein, artery’ < *ráha-ka- (Parth. rahag, Sogd. rāk, Khot. rrā ‘veins’, Armen. erak ‘vein, vena; string’, Bal. raγ, Paz. raγ. cf. Av. raŋhā- f. name of a river, Skt. rása- m. ‘the sap or juice of the plants; water, liquor’, rasā́- f. name of a stream).

šahr/ šār ‘kingdom; country’ < *xšaθra-, xšaθrahi̯a (Av. xšaθra -, OPers. xšaça-, Skt. kṣatrá-, Parth. xšahr, Armen. ašxarh, Bactr. þαρο/ þαυρο, Paz. šahar),

šahrestān/ šārestān ‘town (of some importance)’ < *xšaθra-stāna- (Pers. شهرستان، شارستان ).

tār ‘darkness; dark’ < *tahr < *tanθra- (Av. tąθra- ‘darkness’, tąθrya- ‘dark’, Osset. tar).

tār ‘string’ < *tanθra-.

2.2.6. ān < **ahn* or **agn*

āvān < āvahn ‘settlement’ < *ā-u̯ahana- (OPers. āvahana- nt., Armen awan ‘burgh, burrow’).

nān ‘bread’ < *nagna- (Parth. naγn, Bactr. ναγανο, Paz. nąn).

vahrām < varhrān < *u̯ṛθragna- (Av. vǝrǝθraγna-, Armen. vahagn).

2.2.7. a before rz[a] or rd[a] reduced to r/ l tends to become long:

gāl ‘cave’ was borrowed from a vṛddhied *garda- < *gṛdá- (Av. gǝrǝδa- m. ‘den, daēvic cave’, Skt. gṛhá- m. ‘house’, Yaγ. γurda ‘hole, pit’),

cf. gilist(ag) ‘abode (of devils)’.

kamāl (also kamār) ‘head’ a daēvic term < *ka-marda- a vṛddhied *kamṛda- (Av. kamǝrǝδa- ‘head’, Khot. kamala-, Bactr. καμιρδο ‘head, chief’, Toch. B kamartiki ‘chiefs’, cf. Skt. mūrdhán-, dvi-/ tri-mūrdha-).

¹māl-/ muštan ‘to rub, sweep, polish’ (also marz-) < *mard-a- < *marj́-a- (OPers. °marda-, Av. marz, marǝzaiti, maršta-, Skt. marj, mṛjáti, mṛṣtá-, Osset. I mærzyn, D mærzun ‘to clean’, Bal. malag, mušag ‘to rub, smear’).

² māl- ‘to hurt, injure’ < *mard-a-,

cf. āmāl rendering Av. marǝδā- f. name of a calamity or sinful act.

nāl-/ nār- ‘to moan, groan, lament’ < *nárd-a- (Skt nard, nárdati, Sogd. narδ-).

pālān ‘saddle’ < *pári-dāna- (Sogd. pérδan).

sāl/ sār ‘year’ < *sard- < *ćard- (OPers. θard- f., Av. sarǝδa- adj., Skt. śarád- f. ‘autumn; year’, Parth. sār, Zaz. seṛ).

vāl-/ vālīdan ‘to grow; enlarge’ < *u̯ard-a- (Av. vard, varǝδa-/ G varǝda-, varǝdaya-, Skt. vṛdh, várdhati, Parth. vār-, Pers. بالیدن گوالیدن ).

vāl (also gul, vard) ‘flower, rose’ < *u̯arda- (Av. varǝδa- m., Parth. vār, Mand. uarda, Arab. ورد ).

vālan ‘settlement, commune; district’ < *u̯ardana- < *u̯arzana- (OPers. vardana- nt. ‘town’ > Skt. vardhana-, Av. varǝzāna-, G vǝrǝzə̄na- nt., Skt. vṛjána- ‘settlement, community’, Pers. برزن ).

²xvāl/ xvār ‘sweet’ < *hu̯ard-a- < *hu̯arz ‘to taste’ (Av. xvarǝzišta- ‘most delicious, sweetest’ ≈ Pers. xvārist).

āl < ahl < **arθ*[a]

hamāl ‘peer’ < *ham-arθa- (Av. hamǝrǝθa- m. ‘opponent’ ≈ Pers. hamēmāl, Sogd. āmarθ ‘fellow, companion’).

¹xvāl/ xvār ‘food’ < *hu̯ar-a- ‘to eat’, *hu̯arθa- ‘food’ (Av. xvarǝθa- nt. ‘food’, Osset. Ir. xærd ‘id.’, Pers. خوال , cf. also Elam. kurrusam), or ¹xvāl ‘food’ < *hu̯árta- (Av. xvāṣa- nt. ‘food’, xvāṣar- ‘drinker’ < *hu̯ártar-).

§ 2.3. i

i is preserved as such in most cases, though, in a number of contents, i is lengthened to ī.

diz ‘strong-place, fort’ < *dizā- (OPers. didā- f. ‘stronghold, fortress’).

im ‘this’ < *ima- (OPers. ima-, Av. ima-),

im-rōz ‘today’,

im bay ‘his majesty’

mihōxt ‘false speech’ < *miθa-uxta- (Av. miθō.uxta- adj. ‘falsely spoken’).

nibēs-/ nibištan ‘to write down’ < *ni-pai̯sa- (OPers. paiθa-, ni-pišta-, Bactr. ναβις-/ νιβις-, Paz. niβə̄s-, naβašt, Pers. نویس ).

niyām ‘sheath, scabbord’ < *ni-dāman- (Parth. niδāmag).

tigr ‘arrow’ (also tīr) < *tigri- (OPers. tigra- adj. ‘pointed, sharp’, Av. tiγra- adj. ‘id.’, tiγri- m. ‘pointed thing; arrow’, Parth. tirγ ‘swift’).

xišt ‘brick’ < *išti- (OPers. išti- f., Av. ištya- nt., zǝmō ištya ‘brick of earth’, Skt. iṣṭakā- f. ‘brick’, Parth. hištīg ‘brick’, Bal. išt).

2.3.1. The phonetic realization of vocalic r, (OPers. ṛ written in the cuneiform texts by the sign <ra>, Av. ǝrǝ, Skt. ṛ), becomes ir (and after a labial it becomes ur):

dil ‘heart’ < *dṛd- < *źṛd- (Av. zǝrǝd- nt., Skt. hŕ̥d-, Parth. zirδ, Zaz. zeṛi).

grift ‘taken’ < girft < *gṛpta- (Av. gǝrǝpta-, Skt. gṛbhita-, Bal. gipt-a).

kird ‘made, done; fact, reason’ < *kǝrta- < *kṛta- (OPers. <ka-ra-ta>, Av. kǝrǝta-, Skt. kṛtá-, Bactr. κιρδο, Bal. kurt).

kirm ‘worm’ < *kṛmi- (Skt. kŕ̥mi-, Sogd. kirm-, Toch. B acakarm ‘snake’ < *aži-kṛmi-, Paz. xarm).

kirmir ‘red, kermes, scarlet’ < *kṛmira- (Skt. Buddh. kremeru, Sogd. kirmēr, Yaγ. kimēr, Armen. karmir ‘red, rudy, rubicund’, Hebr. karmīl ‘red’, Paz. xarmēra, Arab. قرمز ).

nirfs- ‘to wane’ < nṛfsa- (Av. narp, nǝrǝfsa- inch.).

singabēr ‘ginger’ (cf. Skt. śṛṅgavera-/ śṛṅgabera- nt.).

tirs- (also tars-) ‘to fear, be afraid, dread’ < *tṛsa- (OPers. t-r-s-t-i-y ‘he fears’ ≈ Av. °tǝrǝsaiti, Bal. turs-, Parth. tirs-, tišt ‘fear, dread’ < *tṛšti-, Osset. I tærsyn, D tærsun, cf. Av. taršti-, cf. also Skt. trasyati ‘trembles, is afraid of’).

xirs ‘bear’ < *ṛša- < *ŕ̥ćša- (Av. arša-, Skt. ŕ̥kṣa-).

xišt (also aršt) ‘spear’ < *ṛšti- (OPers. a-r-š-t-i-š, Av. aršti- f., Skt. ṛṣtí-, Khot. hälśti, Pers. xišt ‘small spear’, Armen. xišt ‘lance, spear, staff’).

§ 2.4. ī

ī is usually preserved without change:

bīz ‘seed’ < *bīza- (Skt. bī́ja-, Sogd. bīzē ‘seed’, Khot. bījä, Par. bīz ‘corn, grain’).

šīr (also xšīr) ‘milk’ < *xšīra- (Skt. kṣīrá- nt., Yidγā xšīra),

a-xšīr-ag abar mādar ‘a weaned child towards the mother’. Ps 130.2

tīr name of a month < tīra- (Av. tīra- nt. name of a deity, tīrō.nakaθβa- pr. n.), tīrdād pr. n. < *tīra-dāta- (Elam. ti-ri-da-da, Gr. Τιριδάτης, Palm. Aram. tīrdāt).

¹vīr ‘man’ < u̯īra- (Av. vīra- m. ‘man, hero; warrior’, Skt. vīrá-, Yaγn. vīr ‘husband’, Elam. mira° from OPers. vīra-, cf. Elam. mi-ra-ma-na < *vīra-manah-).

²vīr ‘wit’ < *u̯īra- (Av. ²vīra-, Khot. vira- ‘intelligent’, Bal. gīr ‘memory’, Pers. bīr ‘learning by heart’, Gazī vīr ‘memory’).

vīst ‘20’ < *u̯ī́sati (Av. vīsaiti, Skt. vim̐śati, Pers. ).

zīd ‘deprived’ (zin- ‘to deprive, carry off’) < *zīta- (OPers. dyā, adināt, dīta-m, Av. zyā, zināt̰, Skt. jyā, jītá-).

zīv- (also zī-) ‘to live’ < *jiHu̯-a- (OPers. jīva-, Av. jva-, Skt. jī́vati, Parth. žīv-, Paz. zīβ-).

2.4.1. The lengthening of short i after v is due to the accentuation of i:

vīrāy-: vīrāst ‘to arrange, order, lay out; restore’ < vìrāy-ending < *u̯i-rād-ái̯a- (OPers. rāsta- ‘right, straight’, Av. raz, rāzaya-, răšta-, Parth. vīrāz-: vīrāšt, Paz. vīrāi-: vīrāst).

vīs ‘settlement, village; clan; royal house’ < *u̯is- (OPers. viθ-, Av. vīs- f., Skt. víś-, Khot. bisā- ‘house’, Parāčī γus ‘id.’, Bal. gīs).

vīsp ‘all, entire, whole, every’ < *u̯ispa- (OPers. visa-, vispa-, Av. vispa-/ G vīspa-, Skt. víśva-, Khot. biśśä-, Paz. vīsp).

2.4.2. ī < **i̯a*-**i̯a*- (or, the sequence **ĭi̯a*-) may become ī:

anī (also an) ‘other’ < *áni̯a- (OPers. aniya-, Av. ańya-, Skt. anyá-, Paz. han).

didīg/ dudīg ‘second’ < *du̯itĭi̯a-ka- (Parth. bidīg, Sogd. δǝβdīk, Bactr. βιδδιγο).

ī (also īg) relative particle < *i̯a- (Av. ya- relative pronoun),

īg < *i̯a-ka-.

īzad (also yazd) ‘divinity; god’ < *i̯azáta- (Av. yazata-, Skt. yajatá-, Bactr. ιεζιδ, Osset. izæd).

īzišn (also yazišn) ‘worship; ceremonial’ < *i̯aza-šna- < *Hi̯áj-a-θna- .

māhīg ‘fish, Pisces’ < *māθii̯a-ka- < *matsi̯á- (Av. masya- m., Skt. mátsya- ‘fish’, mātsyá- adj. ‘fishy’, Parth. māsīg, Yazdī mosū, Kurd. ماسی , Yaγ. mōhī, Šuγ. māye, Pers. ماهی ).

mīzd (also myazd) ‘sacrificial repast, offering’ < *mii̯azda- < *mii̯as-dha- (Av. myazda- ‘food offering, the sacrificial solid food’, Skt. miyédha- m., Pers. میز ‘table ; provisions for a guest’),

mīzdbān ‘host’ (Pers. میزبان ).

rahīg ‘page, adolescent; servant’ < *raθi̯a-ka-, *raθi̯a- ‘charioteer’ (Skt. rathī́- adj. ‘going in a chariot’, as substantive ‘carriage-driver, charioteer’, Paz. rahī).

rōzīg ‘daily lot (bread, food), sustenance’ < *rau̯ci̯a-ka- (Sogd. rōcīk, Bactr. ρωσιγο, Armen. ṙoč̣ik ‘appointment, ration, pension, pay, maintenance’, Arab. رزق , Paz. rōžī).

-īd < **i̯a-ta-*

A secondary ending of the past participle is īd:

caxš- ‘to taste, flavour; drink’ < *caxš-a-,

caxšīd secondary ppp., older *caxšta-.

varz- ‘to work, labour’,

varzīd (Av. varz, vǝrǝzya- pres., varšta- ppp.).

vāz- ‘to say, murmur, tell’ < *u̯āc-ai̯a-,

vāxt ppp.,

vāzīd secondary ppp. (Parth. vāžād).

Vocalic *r followed by **i̯a*,**u̯i̯a* (or **bi̯a*) may become īr:

gīr-/ griftan ‘to take, grasp, seize’ < *gṛu̯-i̯a- < *gṛb-i̯a- (OPers. grab, gṛbāya- < *gṛb-ā-i̯a- , Av. grab, gǝurvaya-, gǝrǝβn-ā- pres., gǝrǝpta- ppp., Skt. grabh, gṛbhṇā́ti, Parth. girv-, Bal. girag).

mīr-/ murdan ‘to die’ < mṛ-i̯a- (OPers. mar, mariya-, mṛta-, Av. mirya-, marǝta-, Skt. mṛyáte, Khot. mär-: muḍa-, Sogd. mīr-: murt, Bactr. μιρ-: μορδο, Yaγ. mir-, Osset. I mælyn, D mælun).

The passive present suffix -i̯a- becomes īy/ īh:

baxšīh- ‘to be divided; be bestowed’ < *baxš-i̯a-.

kanīh- ‘to be dug’ < *kan-i̯a- (OPers. kaniya-, Paz. xanīh-).

kirīy-/ kirīh- ‘to be done’ < *kṛ-i̯a- (Av. kirya-, kiryeiti < *kǝri̯ati ≈ kirīyed,

ēd-iš ōn āfrīn kirīyed mard kē tarsed az xvadāy. Ps 127.4

samīh- denom. ‘to be terrorized’ from sahm ‘terror’ < *çahma(n)- < *θrah-ma(n)- (OPers. *çahma(n)- ‘terror’).

2.4.3. The sequence **iu̯ar* (or, **ibar*) sometimes becomes īr:

dibīr ‘scribe, writer; secretary’ < *dipi-u̯ara- or *dipi-bara- (Skt. divira- m., Armen. dpir, Bactr. λαβιρο).

Zerīr pr. n. < *zari-u̯ari- (Av. zairi.vairi- m.).

2.4.4. The sequence **iu̯a/ iHu̯a may be reduced to ī:

āfrīn ‘blessing, praise’ < *ā-fri-u̯ana- (Av. āfrivana- nt., Parth. āfrivan).

pīh ‘fat, tallow’ < *pīu̯ah- < *piH-u̯as- (Av. pīvah- nt., Skt. pīvas- nt., Khot. pī, Osset. I fīw, D few, Bal. pīγ, pīg, Paz. pih).

zīndag (also zīvendag) ‘living; alive’ < *jiu̯antaka- < *jiHu̯-ant-a-ka- (OPers. jīva- adj. ‘alive’, Av. jiva-, jvaṇt-, Parth. žīvandag, Paz. ziṇdaa).

2.4.5. īr < ihr < -iθr*-

The replacement of ihr by īr is found in a few words (compensatory lengthening):

huzīr (also huzihr, hu-cihr) ‘beautiful, handsome’ < *hu-ciθra- (Av. hu-ciθra- adj., Skt. su-citrá-, Parth. hužihr, Paz. hūcihar, Pers. هژیر /hužīr/, خجیر /xujīr/).

Mīr (also Mihr) the divinity Mithra < *miθra- (Av. miθra- m., Bactr. μιρο, Sogd. miš, mīr, Gil. amīr name of a month).

2.4.6. īr < igr

The sequence *igr may pass to īr (compensatory lengthening):

pedīr-/ pedīriftan ‘to receive, accept; adopt’ < *pati-gṛbi̯a- (Parth. padgirv-, Paz. padīr-).

sīr (also sigr) ‘garlic’ < *θigra-; (cf. OPers. θāigraci month name).

tīr (also tigr) ‘arrow’ < *tigri- (Av. tiγri- m. ‘arrow’, tiγra- adj. ‘pointed’ ≈ OPers. tigra-, Skt. tīrī- f. a kind of arrow, Parth. tirγ ‘swift’).

2.4.7. -īg < -ikă*-

A few words in °īg correspond to Avesta words in -ikă-, but the known corresponding Sanskrit words have -īkă-.

ādīg ‘duck’ < *ātika- (Parth. inscr. ʾtykn, cf. Elam. ha-ti-ka).

carādīg ‘young woman capable of procreating’ < *carātika- (Av. carāitī- f., carāitikā- f., Skt. caraṭī- f. ‘young woman married or single who after maturity resides in her father’s house’).

jahīg ‘bad woman, whore’ < *jahikā- (Av. jahī- f., jahikā- f., cf. Skt. hasrā- f. ‘lewd woman’).

kabīg ‘monkey, ape’ < kapikă- (Skt. kapí- m., Armen. kapik ‘ape, baboon’, Pers. کپی ).

kenīg ‘girl, maiden, damsel’ < *kanikā- (Av. kainikā- f., Toch. A kānik-āñc- ‘girl’).

nārīg ‘wife; female’ < *nāri-kā- (Av. nāirī- f., nāirikā- f. ‘a woman who is under the supervision of a tutor; a female’, nāiriθβana- nt., lit. ‘womanhood’, ‘marriage’, Skt. nā́rī- f., Khot. nārä, Pers. ناری ).

perīg ‘demoness; witch’ < *parikā- (Av. pairikā- f., Paz. farī).

2.4.8. The lengthening of the last syllable īd < -it < **ita*-/ **itā*- means that it should be pronounced with a stress:

āhīd ‘ill-humoured, cross’ < *āhita-, āhīd ‘ill humour’ < *āhiti- (Paz. xāhīt̰).

Anāhīd name of a divinity, the planet Venus < *anāhitā- (Av. anāhitā- f., Armen. anahit, Paz. anāhīt̰).

dīd ‘seen, observed’ < *dita- (Av. °dīta- ppp., Bactr. λιδο).

2.4.9. °īn, °īr

For the plural ending -īn see “The Substantive”.

There are a few examples of °īr instead of °ār < °ahr, especially in the second member of a compound:

Ardašīr pr. n. (also Ardaxšār) < *arta-xšaθra- (OPers. ṛtaxšaça- m., Elam. ir-da-ak-ša-ra, ir-da-ik-ša-iš-ša, Gr. Ἀρταξάρης, Pers. šahr/ šār < *xšaθra-),

ʾrtḥštry: ʾrtḥštr: Ἀρταξάρου. ŠKZ 25

ʾrtḥštr: ʾrtḥštr: Ἀρταξιρ. ŠKZ 28

ʾrtḥštr: ʾrtḥštr: Ἀρταξειρ. ŠKZ 29

pādixšīr ‘document; contract, treaty, ἔγγραφος’ < *pāti-xšaθra- (Armen. patšir ‘treaty; authentic rescript’),

cf. ŠKZ 24 MDM ptʾḥštly YKTYBWN: ʾpr ptyḥštr KTYBT: εῖς ἔνγραφον τοῦ ἀσφαλίσματος τῆς τεμῆς ἐγράψαμεν.

§ 2.5. u

Perso-Aryan *u is in general retained in Pārsīg. It continues OPers. u:

angubēn ‘honey’ < *hangu-pai̯na-, *hangu- ‘(queen) bee’ < *sangu- (Sogd. ʾnkwpyn /angupēn/).

buz ‘goat’ < *buza- < *buja- (Av. būza- lengthened in open initial syllable, Armen. buc ‘(ewe) lamb’, bzakʿ ‘castrated he goat’).

hur ‘alcoholic drink’ < *hurā- (Av. hurā- f. ‘a spirituous liquor’, Skt. súrā- an exhilarant drink, a kind of beer’ > Pers. سر , Khot. hurā- ‘mare’s milk fermented, kumis’).

hušk (also xušk) ‘dry; land’ < *huška- < *súṣka- (Av. huška- adj., OPers. uška-, Skt. śúṣka-, Khot. huṣka-, Sogd. ǝšku-, ǝškǝvē, Osset. I xwysk’, D xusk’æ, Paz. xvašk, cf. Khwar. ʾkk, Yaγ. qōq).

juvān ‘young; a youth’ < *i̯uu̯an-, *i̯uu̯ānam < *Hi̯u-Han (Av. yuvan-/ yūn-, yuvānǝm, Skt. yúvan-/ yū́n-, yúvānam, Khot. jvaa-, Parth. yuvān, Paz. jvąn, cf. Osset. I wænyg, D iwonug ‘bull-calf, juvencus’).

muhr ‘seal’ < *mudrā- (> Skt. mudrā́- f., Khot. mūrā- f. ‘jewel, coin’, Bactr. μολρο, Sogd. mǝδr),

muhrag ‘seal, piece’(Armen. murhak ‘(promissory) note; bill; contract, bond, act, cedule’, Aram. muhraqā, Arab. مهرق ).

pus ‘son, child’ < puça- < *puθra- (OPers. puça-, Av. puθra-, Skt. putrá-, Parth. puhr).

pusag ‘garland’ < *pusa-ka- < *pusā- (Av. pusā- f. ‘garland; crown’, Sogd. ǝpsāk ‘garland, wreath’, Armen. psak ‘crown, coronet, diadem’, Pers. پساک ‘garland of flowers’).

rust ‘grown’ < *rusta- < *rud-ta- (Av. ruδ, urusta-/ uruzda- ppp.).

suft ‘shoulder’ < *supti- (Av. supti- f., Skt. śúpti-, Khot. suta-, Yidγā suvdo).

sust ‘lazy, sluggish, slack’ < *çusta- < *θrusta-.

suš ‘lung’ < *suši- < *ćuši- (Av. suši f. dual ‘lungs’, Khot. suvä’ ‘lungs’, Osset. Ir. sus/ Dig. sos, Kurd. šōs, Yazd. sus, šuš, Pers. شش, سوشه ), cf. svah- (or, soh-) ‘to sigh’ < *su̯ah-a- (Skt. śvas ‘to blow, snort’, śvásiti, Parth. svahišn ‘sighing’, Pašt. sūṇ).

suxr (also suhr) ‘red’ < *suxra- (OPers. θuxra- pr. n. m., Av. suxra- adj. ‘bright, red’, Skt. śukrá- adj. ‘shining, bright, whitish’, Bactr. σορχ°, σορχιυο λιζακο name of an estate, Osset. I syrx, D surx, Pers. سرخ ), Pers. سور < sūr < suhr (Bal. suhr ‘red’, suhrāf ‘red water’ name of a stream, Pašt. sūr, Kurd. sūr ‘red; burnt brick’).

suy (also šuy) ‘hunger’ < *šud-a- < *ćšúdh- (Av. šuδa- m., Skt. kṣúdh- f.).

urvar ‘plant; arbour, tree’ < *uru̯arā- (Av. urvarā- f., Skt. urvárā- f. ‘corn-field, harvest field’).

uš ‘dawn’ < *ušah- (Av. ušah- f., ušah sūrā ‘the morning dawn’, Skt. uṣás-), ušebām ‘dawn’.

uštar ‘camel’ < *uštra- (Av. uštra- m., uštrā- f., OPers. uša- < *ušça-, Skt. úṣṭra- m., uṣṭrī- f., Sogd. xuštar-, Bal. huštar).

2.5.1. *a yields u in the position before a labial consonant:

abdum ‘last, final’, used adverbially ‘finally’ < *ápa-tama- (cf. Av. apǝma- with the adjectival suffix -ama-, Paz. aβadim, aβadum, Pers. افدم /afdum/).

fradum ‘first, foremost’ < *fra-tama- (OPers. fratama-, Av. fratǝma-, Paz. fradim).

muv (also mog) ‘Magian priest’ < *magu- (OPers. magu- m., maguš, Av. moγu-, Armen. mog, Pers. مغ ).

tum (also tam) ‘darkness, gloom; hell’ < *tamah- (Av. tǝmah- nt., Skt. támas-, Sogd. tǝm), tumag (Paz. tamaa).

2.5.2. The phonetic realization of vocalic r after a labial or an alveolar becomes ur:

aburnāy ‘not of full age, minor (of age), boy’ < *a-pṛnāi̯u- from *a-pṛna- (Skt. a-pūrṇa-) and āi̯u- ‘age’ (Av. apǝrǝnāyu-, Paz. aβarnāe, Pers. برنا ), aburnāyag (Av. apǝrǝnāyuka- ‘a minor’, Arab. برناج ), purnāy ‘of full age, adult’ (Av. pǝrǝnāyu- adj., Yt 19.43 apǝrǝnāyu ahmi nōit̰ pǝrǝnāyu).

ādur/ ādar ‘fire’ < *ātar-, ātṛ-m (Av. ātar- m., ātrǝm, Parth. āδur, Paz. ādar, Pers. آذر ), also ātaš < *ātṛ-š (Av. ātarš), ādurestar ‘ashes’ (Av. ātrya- nt., Sogd. āšē).

āmurz- ‘to forgive, be merciful’ < *ā-mṛžd-a- (Av. maržd, mǝrǝžda- ‘to be merciful, absolve’, Skt. marḍ, mṛḍáti ‘to be gracious, pardon’, Khot. mulysdi ‘mercy’, Parth. āmužd ‘pity’).

buland ‘high, tall’ < *bṛdant-am < *bṛj́ant-am (Av. bǝrǝzaṇt-, Skt. bṛhánt-), also burz ‘high, lofty; loud’ < *bṛj́ant-s, bṛz° (Av. bǝrǝzō nom. sg., bǝrǝz°, Skt. bṛhán, Sogd. βǝrz, βǝrzē, Khot. bulysa-, Khwar. βžk).

burd ‘borne, carried; patient’ < *bṛta- (Av. bǝrǝta-, Skt. bhṛta-).

burz- ‘to praise, honour, esteem’ < *bṛj, bṛj-ai̯a- (Av. barj, bǝrǝjya-).

kurt/ kurd ‘shirt, coat’ < *kŕ̥t-a- (Av. kaṣa-/ kǝṣa- nt., Sogd. kurδē/ kurθē, Pers. کرته, فرته ).

murd ‘dead; death’ < *mṛta- (OPers. mṛta- ‘dead’, Av. °mǝrǝta-/ °marǝta-, Skt. mṛtá-).

murv ‘bird’ < *mṛga- (Av. mǝrǝγa- m., Skt. mṛgá-, Parth. murγ, Sogd. mǝrγ, Paz. murū, murvą, Pers. مرغ ).

puhl (also purd) ‘bridge, ford’ < *pṛtu- (Av. pǝrǝtu-/ pǝṣu- m., Gīl. purd/ purt, Pers. پل ).

purd (also pard) ‘strife, fight, conflict’ < *pṛt- (Av. part, pǝrǝta- ‘to combat’, pǝrǝt- f. ‘combat’, Skt. pŕ̥t- f., OPers. pṛtana- nt. ‘combat, fight’),

purdēn- denom. ‘to combat’, niburd (also nibard) ‘combat, quarrel’ < *ni-pṛt-.

purd ‘forfeited; obliged’ < *pṛ-ta- (Av. par, pǝrǝta°, pǝṣa°, Bactr. πορδο), purdagsar renders Av. pǝṣō.sāra- adj. ‘whose head is forfeited’ (Y 11.3).
pur or purr or purn° ‘full’ < *pṛna- (Av. pǝrǝna- adj., Skt. pūrṇá- ‘filled’ < *pṛH-ná-, Khot. purra-, Zaz. piṛ).

purr ‘hole hand’ (Av. pǝrǝnā- f.).

purs- ‘to ask’ < *pṛs-a- (OPers. fraθ, pṛsa-, Av. fras, pǝrǝsa-, Skt. praś, pṛcchá-).

pušt ‘back; hill’ < *pṛšt-a/i- < *pṛ-sth2-hó/í- (Av. paršta- m. ‘back, protection’, paršti- f. ‘back’, cf. Skt. pṛṣṭhá- nt., pṛṣtí- f., Pā. piṭṭha-/ piṭṭhi-, Khot. palśti- ‘back of body’, Orm. pēc, Armen. pašt°, պաշտպան ‘protector’).

uspurr (also ǝspurr) ‘full, perfect’ < *us-pṛ-na- (Khot. uspurra-, Sogd. ǝspurn), uspurrīg renders Av. aspǝrǝnah- (N 91).

vazurg ‘great, big; grand’ < *u̯azṛka- (OPers. v-z-r-k /vazṛka-/, Bactr. oazorko, Armen. vzurk, Pers. بزرگ ).

2.5.3. Initial gu < *u̯

A number of words beginning with gu- may go back to *u̯a-:

vahišt, later guhišt ‘best; paradise’ < *u̯ahišta- (Av. vahišta- superl. adj., Skt. vásiṣṭha-, Paz. vahə̄št, Pers. بهشت ), Guhištāzād pr. n.

varāz, later gurāz ‘boar’, also pr. n. < u̯arāza- (OPers. varāza- cf. Elam. ma-ra-za, Av. varāza- m., Skt. varāhá- m., varāhī- f., cf. ŠKZ 31 wrʾc: wrʾz: γουραζ).

vazr, later varz, gurz ‘club, mace’, a weapon of Mithra < *u̯aźra- < *u̯eh2ǵ (Av. vazra- m. ‘mace, Miθra’s club’, Skt. vájra- m. Indra’s thunderbolt, Armen varz ‘staff of command, wand’, Bal. burz ‘club’).

vazurg, later guzurg ‘great’ < *u̯azṛka- (Paz. guzurg, guzarga, Pers. بزرگ ).

*u̯i, used as a prefix to verbs or nouns and other parts of speech, may become gu:

gugān- ‘to destroy’ < *u̯i-kan, *u̯ikānai̯a- (OPers. vi-kan, Av. vī-kan, °kānaya- pres., Parth. vigān-),

gugānīh- ‘to be destroyed’ < *u̯ikānii̯a-.

gugāy ‘witness, testifier; evidence’ < *u̯i-kai̯a- (Khot. bye, byāvan- < *u̯i-kai̯a-u̯an-, Parth. vigāh, Armen. vkay ‘witness, voucher; martyr’, Paz. guβā, cf. F 8 vīkaiehe),

gugāyīh ‘evidence’ (Paz. gvāī).

guhūdag ‘misbegotten’ (also višudag) < *u̯i-hūta-ka- (Av. hu ‘to beget’, Skt. sūta- adj. ‘born, engendered’).

gumān ‘doubt, suspicion’ < *u̯i-manah- (Av. aγǝm uparō.vīmanō.hīm ‘evil over-suspicions’ < *u̯i-manahi̯a-, Paz. gumąn).

gumarz-: gumušt (also gumurz- < *u̯i-mṛci̯a-, vimarz-: vimušt) ‘to destroy, ruin’ < *u̯i-marcai̯a- (Av. vī-marc, mǝrǝṇc-aya- pres., Skt. marcáyati, mṛcyati, mṛktá-, Sogd. vimarz-: vimaštē).

gumāy-: gumād (also vimāy-) ‘to endure, suffer’ < *u̯i-māi̯a- (Skt. vi-mā, Parth. vimāy-).

gunāh- ‘to sin; corrupt’ (also vināh-: vināst) < *u̯i-nāθ-ai̯a- (OPers. vi-naθ, vi-nāθaya- ‘to do harm, injure’, Av. vi-nas, Skt. vi-naś, Parth. vinašt),

gunāh ‘sin’ < *u̯i-nāθa- < *u̯i-nāśa- (also vināh, Parth. vinās, Armen. vnas ‘wrong, injury, detriment, loss, lesion’, Skt. vi-nāśa- m. ‘utter loss, perdition’).

Guštāsp/ Vištāsp pr. n. < *u̯ištāspa- < *u̯i-hita- + aspa- (Av. vīštāspa- m., cf. Skt. viṣita- áṣva-, Paz. Guštāsp.

u̯ before vocalic r becomes gu:

gul (also vard < *u̯árda-, vāl) ‘flower, rose (flower)’ < *u̯ṛd-a- (Av. varǝδa- m., Armen. vard ‘rose’, Khot. vala, Arab. جل ), Gulag pr. n. (Parth. Vardag, Gr. ουαρδικ).

gulan (also vālan < *u̯ardana-) ‘commune, community; town’ < *u̯ṛdana- < *u̯ṛj́ána- (OPers. vṛdana- nt., Av. vǝrǝzə̄na- nt., Skt. vṛjána-, Pers. برزن ).

gurbag ‘cat’ < *u̯ṛpa-ka- < *u̯ḷpa- (cf. Lith. vilpišỹs ‘wild cat’ < *u̯ḷpi-, cf. also Av. urupi- < *u̯ṛpi-).

gurdag ‘kidney’ < *u̯ṛt-ka- (Av. vǝrǝδka-/ vǝrǝt̰ka- m. dual, Sogd. γurdtak, Khot. bilga-, Bal. guṭṭaγ, Sanglēčī gul, Paz. gurdaa).

gurg ‘wolf’ < *u̯ə́rka- < *u̯ṛka- (Av. vǝhrka- m., vǝhrkā- f., Skt. vŕ̥ka- m., vṛkī́- f., Sogd. vǝrk-, Khwar. ūrīk).

Gurgān top. ‘Hyrcania’ < *u̯ṛkāna- (OPers. vṛkāna, Parth. Virgān, Gr. ὑρκανία/ γουργαν, Armen. vrkan).

gušn ‘male’ < *u̯ṛšna- (cf. Av. varǝšna- adj. ‘male’, varšna- m. pr. n., varšni- m. ‘male animal’, Skt. vŕ̥ṣan- adj. ‘manly, vigorous’, vṛṣṇí- adj. ‘id.’, m. ‘ram’),

Gušnasp name of a fire lit. ‘having male horses, drawn by stallions (as a chariot)’ < *u̯ṛšan-aspa- (cf. Skt. vṛṣaṇ-aśvá- m. pr. n., Armen. všnasp),
Gušnaspdād pr. n.

2.5.4. We find a few examples of the change of u to i before fricative alveolars:

dušvār / Parth. dižvār ‘difficult’, also dušxvār from duš and xvār < (*hu-āθra- (Parth. dužvār).

drust/ durust/ drist ‘wholesome, sound, well’ < *druu̯išta- superl. adj. of *druu̯a- (OPers. duruva-, Av. druva-, Skt. dhruvá-, Paz. durust, durušt).

*i sometimes becomes u:

mizd, later muzd ‘reward; wage’ < *mižda- (Parth. mužd ‘wages’, muždag ‘good news’, Pers. مزد /muzd/, مژده /mužda/ ‘joyful tidings’).

2.5.5. In a number of words, it is difficult to decide whether u continues u or is the result of a phonetic shortening of ū:

dum (either secondary dumb) ‘tail’ < *duma-/ *dūma- (Av. duma-, °dūma-, Khot. dumaa-, Osset. D dumæg, Pašt. lǝm), dumbag ‘fat tail’ (cf. Skt. dumbaka- m. ‘fat-tailed sheep’). Sogd. <δwnph>

guh ‘shit, feces, excrement’ < *guθa-/ *gūθa- (Av. gūθa- nt., Skt. gūtha- m. ‘feces, ordure’, Khot. gū, Kāšānī gūs).

§ 2.6. ū

*ū yields ū:

būd ‘(having) been; was; past’ < *būta- (Av. bū, būta- ppp., Skt. bhūtá- ‘been, past; real’).

būm ‘land, earth’ < *būmi- (OPers. būmĭ- f., būmiim, Av. būmī- f., Skt. bhū́mi- f., Sogd. βūm, Khwar. βwm/ fwm).
dūd ‘smoke, fume; hearth-place, household’ < *dūta- (Khwar. δūd, Paz. dūt̰, cf. Skt. dhūmá- m. ‘smoke’, Khot. duma ‘id.’, Par. dhī ‘id.’), dūdag ‘family; soot’ < *dūta-ka-.

dūr ‘far, distant, aloof’ < *dūra- (OPers. dūra- adj., Av. dūra-, Skt. dūrá-, Sogd. δūr).

hūxt ‘good word’ < *hūxta- < *hu-uxta- (Av. hūxta- adj. ‘well spoken’, Skt. sūktá- adj. ‘well said’, nt. ‘good speech’).

mūdag ‘having a dull mind, narrow-minded’ < *mū-ta-ka- (cf. Av. mūra-, mūraka- ‘stupid, idiot’, Skt. mūrá-),

mūdag varan ‘blind desire’,

mūdag xēšm ‘blind wrath’.

mūhr ‘urine’ < *mūθra- (Av. mūθra- nt., Skt. mū́tra-).

nūn ‘now’ < *nūnam < *nuH (OPers. nūram, Av. nū, nūrǝm, nūrąm/ nūrə̄m, Skt. nūnám, Paz. nuṇ).

stūn ‘column’ < *stūnā- (OPers. stūnā-, Av. stuna- m., stŭnā- f., Skt. sthū́nā- f., Khot. stunā-, Sogd. ǝstūn, Pašt. stǝn, Paz. stūna).

ūn ‘hole’ (Av. ūnā- f. ‘cavity in the earth’, ūna- adj. ‘lacking, empty, deficient’, Skt. ūná- adj.).

zūd ‘quick, soon’ < *zūta- (cf. Av. zavah- nt. ‘quickness’, Skt. jávas- nt. ‘id.’, jū́- adj. ‘quick’, jūtá- adj.).

2.6.1. ū < *u

*u lengthens in the last tonic syllable:

āhūg ‘deer; gazelle’, pr. n. < *āθu-ka- < *āsu-ka- (Av. āsu- adj. ‘swift’, Skt. āśú-, Khot. āska-, Khwar. āsk ‘gazelle’, Sogd. āsūk, Kurd. āsik, cf. Elam. ha-šu-ka pr. n.).

bāzūg (also bāzā) ‘arm’ < *bāzu-ka- (Av. bāzu- m., Skt. bāhú-, Khot. bāysva, Osset. I bazyg, D bazug ‘upper arm, above the elbow’, Armen. bazuk ‘arm, forearm, brachium’, Bal. bāzk ‘upper arm’),

bāyūg < *bādu-ka-

ped dast ī stōman, ud ped bāyūg [ī ahrāft], kē-š jāyēdān abaxšāyišn, Mamasanī bāhī, Abyānaī bāhṻ Ps 135.12.

cārūg ‘lime, mortar’ < *cāru-ka- (Pers. سارو , چارو , Arab. صاروج , شاروق ).

danūg ‘chin, jaw’ < *danu-ka- (Skt. hánu- f., Sogd. zǝnūk, Bal. zanūk).

dārūg ‘medicine, drug; (medical) plant’ < *dāru-ka- (OPers. dāruv nt. ‘wood (ebony)’, Av. dāuru- nt. ‘wood’, Sogd. δāruk, Parth. dālūg, Yaγn. dōrk ‘wood, stick’, Šuγ. δōrg, Paz. dārū, Pers. دارو , cf. Pers. dār ‘tree, wood, pillar’), dārubdag ‘crucified’ < *dāru-pada-ka- (cf. Skt. dru-padá- nt. ‘a wooden pillar, a post to which captives are tied’).

gāhūg ‘seat; couch; bier; litter’ < *gāθu-ka- (Sogd. γāθuk ‘throne’, Yaγn. γōtk ‘nest’, Pers. کاهو , کاهان).

gēsūg ‘curl, ringlet of hair’ < *gai̯su-ka- (Av. gaēsu- adj. ‘curly-haired’, Pers. گیسو ).

hindūg ‘Indian (people, language)’ < *híndu-ka- (Khot. indua-, Sogd. induk/ indku, Tokh. B yentuke, Pers. هندو ), Hindūgān ‘India’ (Paz. hiṇdvą).

jādūg ‘sorcerer’ < *i̯ātu-ka- (OPers. yātu-, Av. yātu- m., Sogd. yātūk, Armen. ǰatuk ‘sorceress, shrew, wizard, witch’, Paz. jādu, jādvą).

pazdūg an insect < *pazdú-ka- (Av. pazdu- m., cf. Skt. pedú- m., Pers. خبزدوک ‘scolopendra’, Sīh pursišn 9 pazdūk guhvard).

vāyūg ‘hunter’ < *u̯āi̯u-ka- (Sogd. vāyūk).

zānūg ‘knee’ < *zānu-ka- (Av. zānu-, Skt. jā́nu- nt., Khot. ysānū, Osset. zonyg, Bal. zān, Paz. zānū), šnūg (also ǝšnūg) < *žānu-ka- < *źnu- (Av. žnu- nt., also °xšnu-/ °šnu-, Skt. jñu°), frāz-šnūg (also frāz-zānūg) ‘with the knees forward’ (Av. fra-šnu- adj.).

ū < ū in open initial syllable < u

šnūman ‘satisfaction’ < *xšnuman- (Av. xšnuman- f., xšnūmaine dat .sg.).

zūr ‘false, wrong’ < *zurah- (OPers. zūrah-, Av. zūrah- nt. ‘crookedness, deceit; wrong doing’),

zūr gōb- ‘to tell a lie, falsify’ (Parth. zūr-vāž ‘lying speech’, Pers. زورگو ),

zūrgugāyīh ‘false evidence’ (Arab. شهادة الزّور ).

ū < ūi < u

razūr ‘wood, forest’ < *razūira- < *razura- < *reǵ-u-ro- (Av. razura- nt., razurā- f., razūire loc. sg.),

Syārazūr top. lit. ‘black forest’ (Pers. شهرزور ).

sūr ‘morning meal; banquet’ < *sūiri̯a- < *ćuri̯a- (Av. sūra- adj. ‘morning’, ušå sūra ‘the morning dawn’, sūrǝm adv. ‘in the morning’, sūirya- ‘morning meal’, asūiri-/ asūirya- ‘not morning’, cf. Khot. svī ‘tomorrow’, Osset. sæw- ‘id.’, Skt. śvás ‘id.’).

u in front of the adjective-forming suffix ta- becomes ū:

hušnūd ‘well pleased, satisfied’ < *hu-šnu-ta- (OPers. xšnuta- ppp. of xšnu, Av. xšnuta-).

stūd ‘praised’ < *stu-ta- (Av. ā-stūta-, ahūm.stūtō, Skt. stutá- adj. ‘praised eulogized’).

2.6.2. The sequence **uu̯a* is developed into ū:

pettūg ‘enduring, persistent’ < *pati-tuu̯a-ka-, or pettōg < *pati-tau̯a-ka- (cf. Av. paiti.tavah- adj. ‘having strength to counter’),

hupettūg ‘forebearing’ ≈ hupettāy (Parth. hupattāv).

srū (also srūy) ‘horn; nail; pong’ < *sruu̯a- (Av. srvā- f., sruye acc. dual < *sruu̯ai), sūy ‘id.’ < *çuu̯a-.

xūb (also xob) ‘good, fair’ < *húu̯-apah- (Av. hvapah- adj. ‘of good work, artistic’, Skt. suv-ápas-).

2.6.3. The treatment of hr after u shows some vacillation about the presence of h; the alternatives are uhr or ūr:

angūr ‘vine, grape’ < *anguhr < *ankudrā- (Khot. gūra- ‘grapes’, Yidγā agīdro, Šuγnī angūrδ, Paz. aṇgūr, Pers. انگور /angūr/,
/angurda/, cf. Skt. aṅkūrá- m. ‘sprout, shoot’).

pūr ‘son’ < puhr < *puθra- (Av. puθra-, Skt. putrá- m., Khot. pūra-, Parth. puhr).

2.6.4. ū < *ug

There are a few examples of g-dropping and the lengthening of u:

Sūd (also Subd, Sugd) top. ‘Sogdiana’ < *sugda- (OPers. s-u-gu-d, s-u-g-d-m, Av. suγdō°, Parth. Suγd, Armen. Sovd°, Paz. Sūd.

Tūrestān name of a land < *tugra-stāna- (Parth. Tuγrestān), Tūrān (Parth. Tuγrān, Armen. Turan).

§ 2.7. ē

The regular reflex of the diphthong *ai̯ is ē. This can be interpreted as the result of monophthongization of *ai̯:

dēm ‘face’ < *dai̯Hman- (Av. daēman-, Sogd. δēm ‘eye-ball; face’, Pašt. lēmǝ ‘eye-ball’)

dēn ‘vision soul, religion’ < *dai̯(H)ánā- (Av. daēnā- f., Armen. den, Paz. dīn), Dēnag pr. n. f. < *dai̯na-kā-.

dēv ‘demon, devil’ < *dai̯u̯a- (OPers. daiva-, Av. daēva-, Skt. devá-, Paz. dēβ).

ēd ‘this’ < *ai̯tă- (OPers. aita-, Av. aēta-, Skt. etá- demonstrative pronoun).

ēsm (also ēzm) ‘fire-wood’ < *ai̯zma- < *ai̯dhsma- (Av. aēsma- m., Sogd. zmy, ʾzmw, Yidγā izma, Kohr. ēzem, Zefr. ēzme, Yaγ. īzm, Paz. hə̄žum, Pers. هیزم/hēzum/), also ēmag ‘id.’ < *ai̯dhsma- (Pers. هیمه , cf. Skt. idhmá- m. ‘fuel’, édha- m. ‘firewood’).

ēv ‘one’ < *ai̯u̯a- (OPers. aiva-, Av. aēva- < *oi-u̯o-, Skt. éka-oi-ko-, Lat. ūnus < *oi-no-), ēc ‘any’ < *ēv-c < *ai̯u̯a-cit (Parth. ēviž, Paz. hə̄c).

frazēn lit. ‘very watchful’, (chess) ‘queen’ < *fra-zai̯na- (Arab. فرزان /firzān/).

¹hēn (also ¹xēn) ‘(hostile) army’ < *hai̯nā- (OPers. hainā- ‘[enemy] army’, Av. haēnā- f. ‘id.’, haēnya- adj. ‘hostile’, Skt. sénā- f., Khot. hīnā- ‘army’, hīnāhäna ‘front of army’),

eškenn-hēn ‘breaking the army’.

²hēn (also ²xēn) ‘mischief, offence, small sin’ < *ai̯nah- < *ai̯nas- (Av. aēnah- nt., aēnaŋhō … būjǝm, Skt. énas- nt. ‘crime, misfortune, sin’, énaḥ … bhujema, Paz. xīn, cf. Tokh. A enāk, B ainake ‘common, vile’, Sogd. ʾynʾqwc ‘slanderer’),

hēnēn- denom. ‘to harm, do wrong’ (Av. aēnaŋ́ha- pres.).

mēg ‘cloud, mist’ < *mai̯ga- (Av. maēγa-, maēγǝmca vārǝmca ‘the mist and the rain’, Skt. meghá- m. ‘mist, cloud, rain’, Sogd.-Parth. mēγ, Osset. I mīg, D megæ, Pers. میغ ).

mēhan ‘home, homestead’ < *mai̯θana- (Av. maēθana- nt.).

mēš ‘sheep, ewe, ram’ < *mai̯ša- (Av. maēša- m., maēšī- f., Skt. meṣá- m. ‘ram; Aries’, meṣī́- f. ‘ewe’),

narmēš ‘ram’ < *narah-mai̯ša-.

šēb ‘slope; declivity’ < *šai̯pa- (Bal. šēf/ šēp ‘slope; creek, abyss’),

nišēb ‘dejection’ < *ni-šai̯pa-.

vēm ‘rock, stone; crevice’ < *u̯ai̯ma- (Av. vaēma- m. ‘rock, cleft’, Khot. bīma- ‘rock’, Armen. vēm ‘stone, rock’).

vēn- ‘to see’ < *u̯ai̯(H)na- (OPers. vaina-, Av. vaēna-, Skt. ven, vénati, Osset. wynyn, Bal. dista ppp.).

xēšm (also hēšm) ‘anger, wrath, fury; the demon Wrath’ < *ai̯šma- (Av. aēšma-/ G aēšǝma- m., Parth. ešmag, Georg. hešmaḳ-i ‘Satan, devil’, Armen. hešmak-apašt ‘idolater’).

2.7.1. ē may be the result of the contraction of the sequence **ada* or **adi*:

ēg ‘then, thereupon’ < *ada-kai̯ (OPers. adakaiy, cf. Av. aδa/ G adā ‘then’, Paz. aig).

ēm ‘very low’ < *adama- (Skt. adhamá- adj., Orm. jēm).
ēr ‘down, below; low; under’ < *adari prep., *adara- adj. (Av. aδairi prep. ‘under’, aδara- adj. ‘lower, inferior’, Skt. ádhara-, Paz. ə̄r),

ērag ‘south’ < *adara-ka- (Arab. عراق ),

ēr-kaš ‘under the armpits in respectful salutation’ (Av. aδairi kašaēibya),

ēr-menišn ‘humble, courteous’.

ēranz-: ēraxt ‘to condemn’ < *adi-Hranj-ai̯a- (Av. raṇj, rǝṇja- pres., rǝṇjaya- caus. pres., cf. Skt. raháyati).

ēvan ‘stalk, trunk; the upper part of a tree’ < *adi-vană-.

ēvar ‘valid, authentic, certain’ < *adi-u̯ara- (Paz. ə̄βar, Pers. آور ).

ēvār ‘pillage, booty, spoil’ < *adi-u̯āra- (Pašt.-Bal. āwār, Armen. awar).

gēg (also gayag/ gayōg) ‘robber’ < *gada-ka- (Av. gaδa- m., gaδō.ti- m., Paz. gadūgą).

mēg ‘locust, grasshopper’ < *madakă- (Bal. madag, Pers. میگ ), mēx ‘id.’ < *madaxă- (Av. maδaxa- m., Orm. mēx, Armen. marax, Pers. ملخ ).

pēg ‘foot-soldier; courier’ < *padi-ka- (Skt. pádika- adj. ‘going on foot, pedestrian’, padga- m. ‘foot-soldier’, Pkt. pāyakka-, pāikka- ‘footsoldier’, Parth. paδag, Armen. payik ‘foot-soldier; guard’, payak ‘guard, guardian’, Arab. فيج ).

ē < *ad

With the loss of d before m, via the sequence eym, e lengthens:

nibēm ‘lying, couch’ < *ni-pad-man- (Av. ni-pad ‘to lay down’, Parth. nibaδm).

nišēm ‘seat, perch’ < *ni-šad-man- (Av. ni-had ‘to sit down’, Parth. nišaδm, Bactr. νιþαλμο, Pers. نشیم ‘resting place’, نشیمن ‘seat, bench’).

xēm ‘wound’ < *xad-ma- (Av. xaδ ‘to wound’, Parth. xaδm, cf. Khot. kaṃma- ‘wound’, Pers. خلیدن ‘to puncture, pierce into the flesh’).

2.7.2. ēr

ēr < **ari̯a*

ēr ‘Aryan, noble’ < *ari̯a- (OPers. ariya-, Av. airya- adj., Skt. ā́rya-/ ā́riya- m.).

ērmān (also aryāmān) ‘friend’ < *ari̯aman- (Av. airyaman- m., airyamanǝm ‘hospitality; civilization’, Skt. aryamán- m., aryamáṇam ‘friend, companion’, cf. Pers. ایرمان ‘guest, companion’).

mērag ‘young man, bridegroom; master’ < *mari̯a-ka- (OPers. marīka- ‘young man; subject’ < *marii̯a-ka-, Skt. maryaká- m., Bactr. μαρηγο, Pašt. mrayai m. ‘slave boy’, mrayaī f. ‘slave girl’, Paz. mə̄raa, Pers. میره ), but also mar ‘bad man, villain’ < *mari̯a- (Av. mairya- m., Skt. márya- m.).

nērōg ‘strength, potency; might’ < *nari̯au̯a-ka- < *nṛ-i̯au̯-a- (Paz. nīrō).

pēr ‘old’ < *par-i̯a- < *pṛH-i̯a- (Paz. pīr).

The sequence *agr shows vacillations between -agr and -ēr:

anagr/ anēr ‘infinite’ < *an-agra- (Av. anaγra-), anērān rōz the 30th day of the month (Av. anaγranąm raocaŋhąm).

dagr/ dēr ‘long; late’ < *dagra- < *darga- < *dḷh1ghó- (OPers. d-r-g /darga-/ adj. ‘long’, dargam adv. ‘for a long time’, Av. darǝγa-/ G darǝga-, Skt. dīrghá-, Khot. dāra, Parth. darγ, Osset. darγ, Paz. də̄r, cf. Khwar. drγyc adv.).

sagr/ sēr ‘satiated, satisfied’ < *sag-ra- (Khot. sīra- ‘satisfied, contented’, Paz. sə̄r).

šagr/ šēr ‘lion’ < *šagru- < *ćšargu- (Parth. šarγ, Khot. sarau, Paz. šə̄r).

2.7.3. ēn

The sequence *ani̯a may become ēn:

menūg ‘spirit, invisible agent’ < *mani̯u-ka- < *mṇ-i̯ú-, mēnōg adj. ‘spiritual, immaterial, noetic’ < *mani̯au̯a-ka- (Av. mainyu-/ mańyu- m., mańyava- adj., Paz. mainyō).

The adjective-forming suffix -ēn < *-ai̯na-:

zarrēn ‘golden’ < *zaranai̯na- (Av. zarańya- nt., zaranaēna- adj., OPers. daraniya- nt., Skt. híraṇya- nt., Parth. zarnēn).

The causative and denominative suffix *-ai̯anai̯a- becomes -ēn-:

bēšazēn-: īd ‘to heal, cure, doctor’ < *bai̯šaz-ai̯anai̯a- (Av. bišazya-/ baēšazaya- pres. denom. from bišaz-, baēšaza- ‘remedy’, Skt. bhiṣáj- m. ‘healer’).

ēranzēn-: īd ‘to make guilty; hold debate (with)’ < *adi-Hranj-ai̯anai̯a- (Paz. ə̄rǝnžin-).

ēn < **agn*:

peccēn/ pecēn ‘copy’ < *pati-cagn(ii̯)a- (Armen patč̣ēn ‘copy, transcript, apograph’).

2.7.4. ē < eh

ē < eh < **ahi̯a*:

cē relative pron. ‘what, which’, interrogative pronoun ‘what?’ < *cáhi̯a (Av. G cahyā gen. sg., Osset. I cy, D ci, Bal. či, Paz. ci).

kē relative pronoun ‘who, which’, interrogative pronoun ‘who?’ < *káhi̯a (Av. kaŋ́he/ G kahyā gen. sg. of ka-, Paz. kə̄/ kǝ).

Xē a noun in oblique case < Xeh < Xahyā gen. sg. < *-ahi̯a, for example, aspē oblique ‘horse’ < aspeh < *aspahyā gen. sg. (Av. aspahe).

Other examples of ē < eh:

vē ‘good; better’ < veh < *u̯ahi̯ah (Av. vahyah-, vaŋ́hah-, Skt. vásyas-, cf. OPers. vahyazdāta- pr. n., Pers. Vehdād),

Vē-mihr-šābuhr pr. n. (inscr. wydmtršhpwhry).

zrē ‘sea’ < zreh < zrai̯ah-, zrai̯ahah (Av. zrayah- nt. ‘sea’, zrayaŋhō gen. sg., OPers. drayah- ‘ocean’, Skt. jráyas- nt. ‘expanse’).

2.7.5. The word for “peg”: mēx

mēx ‘peg, nail’ < *mai̯ŭxa- (OPers. mayuxa- m. ‘nail, doorknob’, Skt. mayū́kha- m. ‘peg; gnomon, ray of light’, Sogd. mēxē, Osset. I mīx, D mex, Yid. max, Bal. mēh, mīk, mēx).

§ 2.8. e

The status of e is ambiguous. It often appears as an allophone of /a/. However, as shown below, we may assume the phoneme /e/.

Minimal pairs of /e/: /ē/:

kenīg ‘girl, maiden’: kēnīg ‘vengeful’;

ken ‘young, junior’ (Ken-ādurbūzed, Bactr. κανηÞκο pr. n.): kēn ‘revenge, vengeance’.

2.8.1.*a in front of the palatalized consonant may become e:

dušmen ‘enemy, hostile, foe’ < *dušmaini̯u- (Av. dušmainyūm, Paz. dušman, cf. Bactr. λρουμινο, δρουμινο).

ebged ‘onslaught, aggression’ < *aibi-gaiti- (Av. aiβi.gaiti- f., Paz. aibigat̰).

eméd/ umĕd ‘hope’ < *°máiti-, possibly *ā-mati- (Av. maiti- f. ‘thought’, Skt. mati- f. ‘devotion; thought, wish’, Arab. إماد , Paz. ōmə̄t̰).

enīg ‘forehead, front’ < *anĭka- < *h1eni-h3ku̯o- (Av. ainika- m., Skt. ánīka- nt. ‘face’),

pēšānīg ‘id.’ < *pai̯ši̯ānika-.

Medyōmāh (also Mēdōmāh) pr. n. (Av. maiδyōi.måŋha-).

men- ‘to think’ < *main-i̯a- (OPers. man, maniya-, Av. mainya-, mainyete, Skt. mányate, Paz. min-).

ped, pe- ‘on, with, at’ < *paiti (Av. paiti, OPers. p-t-i-y /pati/, Parth. pad, Bactr. πιδο, πιδ-, Armen. pet, Bal. pa, Yazd. ba, Zaz. bi, Paz. pa, fa).

pedyārag ‘adversary; adversity, misfortune, detriment’ < *paiti̯āra-ka- (Av. paityāra- m., Paz. patyāraa).

*a in a palatal environment also may become e:

deh ‘land, country; village’ < *dahi̯u- (OPers. dahyu- f., Av. daŋ́hu-/ G dax́yu- f., cf. Skt. dásyu- m. ‘enemy’).

jeh ‘(bad) woman, harlot’ < *jahī- (Av. jahī-, jahikā- f., Paz. jə̄, jaē, jihyą).

keh ‘small, young; smaller’ < *kaθi̯ah- (Av. kasyah- comp. adj., Paz. kǝh), kah (also keh) < *kaθu- (Av. kasu- ‘little, small’),

kehdar/ kahādar ‘smaller, younger’ (Parth. kasādar),

kahist ‘smallest, least; youngest’ (Av. kasišta-, Parth. kasišt).

meh ‘bigger, greater; older; longer’ < *maθ-i̯ah- < *mas-i̯ah- ‘longer’ & *maz-i̯ah- ‘greater’ (Av. mazyah- comp. of maz- ‘great’, masyah- comp. of mas- ‘long’, Paz. mǝh), mah (also meh) ‘big, great, old; long’ < *mas- & *maz- (Av. maz- adj. ‘great’, Skt. máh-),

mehdar/ mahādar ‘larger; senior’ (Parth. masādar, Paz. mǝhādar, mǝhtar),

mahist ‘greatest; supreme; longest’ (OPers. maθišta- ‘greatest’, Av. mazišta- ‘id.’, Parth. masišt), mahistag ‘presbyter’.

veh ‘better’ < *u̯ahi̯ah (Av. vahyah-, vaŋ́hah- comp. adj., Skt. vásyas-), but vah (also veh) ‘good’ < *vahu- (OPers. vahu°, Av. vohu-, vaŋhu-, Skt. vásu-, Paz. vahǝ).

2.8.2. e may derive from the sequence **ai̯a*:

mazdesn ‘who worships Ahura Mazdā’ < mazdai̯asna-, also pr. n. (Av. mazdayasna- adj., pr. n. m.).

zreh ‘sea’ (with the loss of h, e lengthens: zrē) < zrai̯ah- (Av. zrayah- nt. ‘sea’, Paz. zrih).

2.8.3. a in front of the alveolars s and z may become e:

abespār-: abespārd ‘to deliver, entrust; convey; transmit’< *upa-spār-ai̯a- (Armen. apsparem ‘to recommend’, Paz. aβaspār-).

abestāy- ‘to renounce, repudiate, apostate’ (≈ abāz stāy-) < *apa-stāu̯-ai̯a- (Av. apa-stu, °stāu- pres., Parth. abestāv-, Sogd. ǝpǝstāv-, cf. Pers. بستاوه شدن ).

bōyestān ‘(flower) garden’ < *bau̯da-stāna- (Av. baoδa- m. ‘smell; perfume’, Armen. burastan ‘garden, orchard’ rendering παράδεισος, Paz. bōstąn.

nesāh (also nasā, nasuš) ‘corpse; carrion’ < *nasāu̯am < *naćāu̯am (Av. nasu-, nasuš, Parth. nasāv/ nesāv, Paz. našāe, cf. Gr. νέκυς).

ōbest (also ōbast) ‘fallen (down); dejection’ < *au̯a-pasta- (Av. ava-pasti- f. ‘falling down’).

Ohrmezd (also Ohrmazd) < *ahura-mazdā- (OPers. ahuramazdā-, Av. ahura-mazdā-, Parth. Ohrmezd, Paz. Hurmazda, Hormezd).

srešk < *sresk ‘drop; tear’ (Av. sraska- m., Sogd. šǝšk).

videst (also vidast) ‘span’ < *u̯itasti- (Av. vītasti- f., Skt. vítasti- f., Osset. wydīsn, Pašt. wlešt/ lwešt/ lwast, Bal. gidist/p/k, Par. belīšt, Pers. بدست /bidast/,گدست /gudast/).

2.8.4. -en-

The sequence *ant, reflected as ǝṇt in a number of older forms, yields end:

āzend ‘example, story’ < *āzainti- < *āzánti- (Av. āzaiṇti- f., Sogd. āzǝnd).

frazend ‘child’ < *fra-zainti- (Av. frazaiṇti- f., Paz. farzaṇd).

gend ‘stench’ < *gainti- (Av. gaiṇti- f., Paz. gaṇd), gendag ‘stinking, foul, fetid’ (Parth. gandāg ‘stinking’, Paz. gaṇdaa), cf. also genn(ag).

hāvand/ hāvend ‘like, similar; equal’ < *hāu̯ant- (Av. havaṇt- adj., Bactr. ωνδο).

enn / ann < **and*:

benn- (also bann-) ‘to bind, tie; arrest’ < *band-ai̯a- (cf. Av. baṇda- pres., Sogd. βǝnd-, Parth. band-, Bal. band-, Osset. bæddyn).

genn (cf. also gend) stench’ < *gan-da- (cf. Skt. gandhá- m. ‘odor, smell, scent’), gennag ‘id.’.

pesenn- (also pesann-) ‘to approve; admire; like’ < *paiti-sand, *°sand-ai̯a- < *°sḱond-éi̯e- (Av. saδaya-, sǝṇdayaŋvha, OPers. θadaya-, Skt. chadáyati, Parth. pasend-, Paz. pasaṇd-).

The adjective-forming suffix -andag < -anta-ka- tends to become -endag*:

vārendag ‘raining, rainy’ from vār- ‘to rain’ < *u̯ār-a(i̯a)- (Av. vāra- pres.).

vaxšendag ‘blazing (fire)’ from vaxš- ‘to wax; kindle, blaze’ < *u̯axš-a(i̯a)- (Av. vaxša- pres.).

2.8.5. *a in front of a voiced alveolar-k may become e:

bišehk ‘doctor, physician’ < *bišaz-ka- (cf. Skt. bhiṣáj- m.).

namehk ‘salt’ < *namadka- (Sogd. namǝδk, Khwar. namaθk, Parth. nameδk, Bactr. ναμιλγο, Kurd. nimek).

§ 2.9. ō

The spelling ō stems from the PA diphthong **au̯*:

bōy ‘scent, perfume; smell’ < *bau̯di- (Av. baoδa- m., baoiδi- f., Parth. bōδ, Sogd. βōδ, Osset. I bud/ D bodæ ‘incense’, Paz. bōi).

dōst ‘friend’ < *dauštar- < *zau̯štar- (OPers. dauštar- m., Skt. joṣṭár- adj., Katī zōtr), dōš ‘friendship, love’ (Av. zaoša- m. ‘pleasure’, Skt. jóṣa- m. ‘approval, pleasure’, Parth. zōš), dōšag ‘friend, dear, loving’.

dōš ‘shoulder’ < *dau̯š- < *dou̯s- (Av. daoša nom. du. of daoš- or instr. sg. of daošan-, də̄uš nom. sg. ‘fore-arm’, Skt. dōs nom. sg. nt. ‘arm’, doṣán- nt. ‘fore-arm’).

dōš ‘(previous) evening, last night’ < *dau̯šā- (Av. daošatara- adj. ‘western’, Skt. doṣā́- f. ‘darkness, night’, Osset. I dyson, D ædosæ, Bal. dŏšī ‘last night’).

drōn ‘bow, arch’ < *drau̯-na- < *dréu̯-no- (Skt. dróna- nt. ‘wooden vessel, trough’, Aškun drǖ/ drȫ ‘war bow’, Khot. durna … pūrnānu ‘bows … arrows’, Sogd. δrōn ‘bow’, δrōn-pǝδē ‘bow-case’, Osset. I ærdyn, D ærdunæ ‘bow’, Yidγā drūn ‘bow’, Bal. drīn 'rainbow'), drōnag ‘id.’ < *drau̯na-ka- (Pers. درونه ‘bow; rainbow’).

drōn ‘sacrificial cake; ceremony in which drōn is used’ < *draunah- < *drau̯H-nas- (Av. draonah- nt., Skt. dráviṇas- nt. ‘movable property, goods’).

drōzan ‘lying, liar, deceitful’ < *drau̯jana- (OPers. draujana- adj., Av. draojina-, Parth. drōžan, Paz. drōžan).
gōhr ‘lineage’; substance; mineral, jewel’ < *gau̯θra- (Skt. go-trá- nt. ‘cowshed, stable’, later ‘family, race, lineage’, Sogd. γōš, Paz. gōhar, Arab. جوهر ).

gōn ‘kind, manner; colour; complexion’ < *gau̯na- (Av. gaona- nt. ‘flesh; colour; growth; hair’, Sogd. γōn ‘colour, appearance, sort’, γōnē ‘colour; hair’, Khot. ggūna- ‘colour; hair’, Pašt γūna ‘hair (of the body)’, Armen. goyn ‘colour, dye; shade; complexion; ornament’).

gōš ‘ear’ < *gau̯ša- (OPers. gauša-, Av. gaoša-/ G gə̄uš.a- m. ‘ear’, Skt. ghóṣa- m. ‘noise, any cry or sound; singing in the ear’, Sogd. γōš, Khwar. γōx).

hōm ‘the Haoma plant, the deity Haoma’ < *hau̯-ma- < *sau̯-ma- (Av. haoma- m., Skt. sóma- m., Sogd. γwm°, خوم ).

hōš-: hušt ‘to dry out, wither up, parch’ < *hau̯š-a-: hušta- < *Hsáu̯š-a- (Av. huš, haoša- pres., Khot. hūṣ-, Parth. xōš-, Bal. huš-: hušt, cf. Osset. I sysyn, D isusun ‘to evaporate’).

jōy ‘stream, water-course, brook; channel’ < *i̯au̯i̯ā- (OPers. yauviyā- f. ‘canal’, Skt. yavyā́- f., Orm. jōī, Par. žī ‘rivulet’, Pers. جوی , جوب ).

kōf ‘mountain’ < *kau̯fa- (OPers. kaufa-, Av. kaofa- m. ‘(dome-shaped) mountain’, Khot. kuvaa- ‘heap’, Munj. kifa ‘mountain’, Paz. kōh, Tāt. kuf, cf. Pers. کُپّه ‘heap, pile, mound’, Aby. kōppa ‘hill’, Šuγ. kūp ‘hump’, Pašt. kwab ‘id.’).

mōg ‘(wooden) shoe, boot’ < *mau̯k-a- from muc, máu̯c-a- ‘to put on’ ( cf. Skt. moka- nt. ‘the stripped-off skin of an animal’, Armen. moyk ‘shoe, jackboots, galoche.’, Arab. موق ‘clog, large boot’),

mōzag ‘shoe; boot’ < *mau̯ca-ka- (Skt. moca- m. ‘shoe’, mocika- m. also maucika- ‘shoemaker, tanner’, Armen. muč̣ak ‘slippers, shoes, pantofle’, Pers. موزه , Arab. موزج ).

ōš (also hōš) ‘death’ < *au̯šah- (Av. aošah- nt.), ōšumand ‘mortal, man’ (Av. aošaŋvhaṇt-),

anōš/ ahōš adj. ‘immortal; sweet’, s. ‘immortality drink, elixir, antidote’ (Av. an-aoša-, Armen. anoyš ‘sweet, agreeable; affable’, Pers. نوش ).

rōbāh ‘fox’ < *rau̯pāθa- < *lau̯pāćá- (Parth. rōbās ‘fox’, Khot. rrūvāsa- ‘jackal’, Sogd. rṓpas, Gōrānī rūā́s ‘fox’, Bal. ropāsk, STātī lūās, cf. Skt. lopāśá- ‘a kind of jackal’, cf. also Av. raopi- m. rendered by rōbāh). Persian rōbah comes from *ráu̯pāθa-, in this case there was shortening of *ā > *a (Sogd. rōpǝs, Yaγ. rūpas).

rōy-: rust ‘to grow’ < *rau̯da- < *Hráu̯dh-a- (Av. ruδ, raoδa- pres., raoδat̰ ‘it grew, rose’, Skt. rodh, ródhati, Parth. rōδ-, Sogd. rōδ-: rust-, Bal. rōδ-aγ, Paz. rōd-).

rōz ‘day’ < *rau̯cah- (OPers. raucah- nt. ‘day’, Av. raocah- nt. ‘day; light’, Bactr. ρωσο, Parth. rōž, Par. ruč, Pašt. rwaʒ, Vaz. wrǝz, Bal. rōš ‘day, sun’, Paz. rōž, cf. Skt. rocíṣ-, Lat. lūx).

sōz-: suxt ‘to burn’ < *sau̯c-a- (Av. suc, saoca- pres., °suxta-, Skt. śoc, śócati, Khot. sūjs-, Sogd. sōc-: suγd-, Parth. sōž-, Gīl. sūj-: sūt, Šīrāzī tuz-).

sōg ‘glow; sorrow, grief’ < *sau̯kă- (Av. saokā- f. ‘glow’, Skt. śóka- m. ‘light, flame, glow; sorrow, anguish, grief’, Armen. sug ‘lament, mourning, grief, sorrow, sadness’).

tōz ‘skin, bark’ < *tau̯ca- (cf. OPers. taka-bara- ‘petasos-wearing’, Skt. tvác- f. ‘skin, hide’, Hitt. tu̯ekka- ‘body; self, person’).

zōhr (also zōr) ‘libation, offering’ < zau̯θra- (Av. zaoθrā- f. ‘offering’, zaoθra- nt. ‘oblation with fire; function of a priest’, Skt. hótrā- f., hotrá- nt., Armen. zoh ‘victim, sacrifice, immolation’, Paz. zōr, cf. Elam. da-u-ša-um).

The word for “ant”:

mōr < *mau̯ri/ ī- < *maru̯° (Av. maoiri- m., Skt. vamrá- m., vamrī́- f., Khot. muṃjaka-, Osset. I mælʒyg, D mulʒug, Šuγ. mūrjak, Bal. mōr, mōrik, mōrink, Pers. مور , مورچه , cf. Sogd. zmōrē, zmōrc, Khwar. zmōrak, Pers. زموره ).

2.9.1. ō < **áu̯a*

ō is likewise the result of the contraction of the sequence *au̯a:

frōd adv. ‘down, downwards’ < *fráu̯at-a (OPers. fravata, Skt. pravát- f. ‘slope of a mountain’, pravát-ā ‘down’, Pers. فروذ, فرو ،هور ).

frōhar (also fravahr < *frau̯árti-) ‘model-soul; ether; choice’ < *frá-u̯arti- (OPers. fravarti- pr. n. m., Av. fravaṣi- f., Paz. fravaš).

frōxš-/ frōš-: frōxt ‘to sell’ < *frá-u̯axš-ái̯a-: *fra-u̯axta- (Av. fra-vaxš, uxšya- ‘to grow forth’, Paz. frōh-: frōxt).

garmōg ‘hot, warm; ardent’ < garmáu̯aka-,

garmōgvar ‘admitted to fire ordeal’ (cf. Av. a-garǝmō.varah-).

karbōg ‘lizard’ < *karpau̯aka- (cf. Av. kahrpuna- m. ‘lizard’, Khwar. karbōn ‘id.’, Lur. karbŏk ‘frog’).

nērōg ‘strength, potency; might’ < *nari̯au̯a-ka- (Paz. nīrō).

nō (also nōh) ‘nine’ < *náu̯a (OPers. nava°, Av. nava, Skt. náva, Khot. nau, Sogd. nǝvá, Bal. no, Paz. nuh).

nōg ‘new’ < *náu̯a-ka- (Av. nava-, Skt. náva-, Parth. navāg, Sogd. nǝvē, Bactr. νωγο, Osset. næwæg, Bal. nōk, nōx, Paz. nō, cf. Khot. navaka- ‘novice’, nūvara- ‘new’).

ōh adv. ‘thus, so’ < *áu̯aθā (OPers. avaθā, Av. avaθa).

ōr (also avar < *au̯ár) adv. ‘come hither’ < *áu̯ar (cf. Av. avarǝ/ avarə̄, Skt. avár, Parth. avar).

ōy adv. ‘there’ < *áu̯adā (OPers. avadā, Av. avaδa, Parth. ōδ).

tō obl. (tū dir.) ‘you’ < *táu̯ă (OPers. tuvam nom. sg., Av. tava/ G tavā gen. sg., Skt. táva, Simnānī tu, to dir./ ta obl., Zazakī tɩ, tu dir./ to obl.).

zōr (also zāvar < *zāu̯arǝ) ‘strength, force, faculty; army, host’ < *záu̯ar- (Av. zavarǝ/ zāvarǝ nt.).

ō prep.-prev. < *áu̯a (OPers. ava, Av. ava, Skt. áva):

ōbār- ‘to swallow, devour, gobble’ < au̯a-bharu̯-a- (cf. Av. baoirya- gerund adj. < *bharu̯iHa-, Paz. hupār-).

ōft- (also ōbay-) ‘to fall; befall; happen’ < *au̯a-pat, *au̯a-patH-a- (Av. ava.pat, ava.patat̰, Paz. oft-).

ōzan-: ōzad ‘to kill, slaughter, murder’ < *au̯a-jan-a-: *au̯a-jṇtá- (OPers.-Av. ava-jan, Skt. ava-han, Parth. ōžan-: ōžad, Paz. aβazan-: aβazad).

§ 2.10. o

The status of o is, like e, ambiguous. It often appears as an allophone of /a/. However, as shown below, we may assume the phoneme /o/.

Minimal pairs of /o/ : /ō/:

mog ‘Magian priest’ (later muv) < *mogu- < *magu (OPers. magu- m., Av. moγu°, Armen. mog ‘magus; magician, astrologer, diviner’, Pers. moγ): mōg ‘shoe’ < *mau̯k-a-.

2.10.1. o < **u̯a*

When *u̯á follows a consonant, it generally yields o:

do ‘two’ < *du̯a- (Av. dva-, Skt. dva-, Sogd. ǝδu, ǝδǝv, Sarik. δǝv, δa, Bact. λοο, λοι, Šuγnī δu, Paz. du).

dor (also dar) ‘door, gate; court; chapter’ < *du̯ar-a- (OPers. duvara-, Av. dvar- m., Skt. dúr- f. ‘door’, dvā́r-a- nt. ‘gate, door’, Paz. dar).

drod (also drūd < *drúu̯atāt-) ‘health, well-being; peace’ < *dru̯átāt- (Av. drvatāt- f., Sogd. δurt, δrūt, Bactr. λροδο, λρουδο, Paz. drut̰, drūt̰).

xob (also xūb < *húu̯-apah-) ‘good, fair’ < *hu̯ápah- (Av. hvapah- adj., Skt. suv-ápas-, Sogd. xūp, Khwar. xūβ, Bactr. χοβο).

2.10.2. *a in front of **hu̯* or *hu may become o:

astoxān (also astaxvān) ‘bone’ < *ast-ahu̯ānām (Orm. stoγān, Siv. istixān, Paz. astuxąn).

dušox (also dōšaxv) ‘hell’ < *duš-ahu̯a- (Av. daožaŋvha- nt., dužaŋhu- m., Parth. dōžax, Armen. džox-kʿ ‘hell; limbo; sepulchre, tomb’, Paz. dōžax).

kohn (also kahvan) ‘old, obsolete, ancient’ < *kah-u̯an-a- (Khot. kuhana-, Parth. kafvan < *kafu̯ana-, Yidγā kuhno, Aby. kahna, Pers. کهن , کهنه , کنانه , cf. Bactr. καβογγο ‘old’).

Ohrmezd (OPers. ahuramazdā-).

ox (also axv) ‘existence; spirit’ < *ahu̯ā- (cf. Av. aŋhu-/ ahu- m., ahvā- f., Skt. ásu- m.).

soxan (also saxvan) ‘word, speech’ < *sahu̯an- < *ćas-u̯an- (Av. saxvan/r- nt., Paz. saxun).

§ 2.11. Prothesis, anaptyxis, aphaeresis, and syncope

Sometimes a vowel is added before two consecutive consonants (prothesis), or between consonants (anaptyxis) to ease the pronunciation. Prothetic or anaptyctic vowels are unetymological and may be a, e (or, ǝ), i, u. The loss of an initial unstressed vowel of a word (aphaeresis) produces a new form. The loss of an interior unstressed vowel of a word (syncope) is also frequent.

2.11.1. Prothesis

espag (also sag) ‘dog’ < *spaka- < *su̯á-ka- < *ću̯ṇ-ka- (Med. σπάκα Herodotus 1.110.1, Skt. śvaka-, Parth. espag, Aram. ʾspky, Pašt. spai).

espāh (also spāh) ‘army’ (Av. spāδa-/ G spāda- m., Parth. espāδ).

espar or aspar ‘shield’ < *spara- (Skt. pharam nt., Armen. spar, aspar ‘buckler, shield defense’, Paz. spar, Pers. سپر /sipar/),

esparvar ‘shield-bearer’ < *spara-bara- (σπαραβάραι ‘shieldmen’, Armen. asparawor ‘soldier armed with a buckler, πελταστής’).

espas-: espašt (also spas-) ‘to serve’ < *spas-i̯a- (Av. spasya- pres., °spašta-, Parth. espas-: espišt, Sogd. ǝspǝš-: ǝspǝxšt, Bactr. σπισ-, prosthesis ασπισ-, ασπασ-, anaptyxis σαπισ-),

espās (also spās) ‘service’ (Sogd. ǝspās ‘service’, Armen. spas ‘service, requisite, vessels’),

espasag ‘servant; deacon’.

estabr ‘thick; grandiose; coarse’ < *stabra- (Av. staβra- adj., Khot. staura- ‘severe, firm’),

stabrag ‘shot silk, stiff silk’ (Skt. stavaraka- a silk fabric made in Persia, Armen. ëstaurak ‘coarse silk staff’, Arab. استبرق ‘thick silk brocade’).

eškarv- ‘to stumble, totter, stagger’ (cf. Skt. skhal, skhálati ‘to stumble, stammer, trip’, Armen. sxalem/°im ‘to err; to stumble’, Parth. eskarf-, Sogd. ǝškǝruβ ‘stumbling’, Pers. شکرفیدن , شکروف ).

eškenn-: eškast ‘to break, fracture’ < *skand-ai̯a- (Av. sciṇdaya-/ scaṇdaya- pres., Šuγnī šičend, Gīl. iškan-).

ešnav-, ašnav-: ašnūd ‘to hear, hearken; understand’ < *xšnau̯[a]- (Av. xšnu-, °xšnuta-, OPers. ā-xšnu-, āxšnauvaiy, Parth. ešnav-, Paz. šnaβ-).

2.11.2. anaptyxis

durūd ‘health; peace’ < *drúu̯a-tāt-, durust ‘wholesome, sound, correct’ < *druu̯išta- superl. adj. of *druu̯a-.

durvand (also druvend) ‘wicked; deceitful; infidel’ < *druu̯ant- < *drug-u̯ant- (Av. drvaṇt-/ G drǝgvaṇt- adj., Paz. darvaṇd).

sipiš ‘louse’ (also spiš, spuš) < *spiš- < *ću̯iš (Av. spiš-, Sogd. špǝš-, Yazd. sveš, Wakh. šiš, Lakī šeš < *siš, Kum. šöš, Gīl. subūj, Pers. شپش ).

§ 2.11.3. Aphaeresis

sang ‘stone’ (Av. asəṇga- m., OPers. aθanga-, Parth. asang, Khot. saṃgga-, Sogd. sang/k, Yaγn. sank, Paz. saṇg).

xašēn (also xasēn) ‘(dark) blue’ < *axšai̯na- (Av. axšaēna- adj., aršō … axšaēnō ‘dark blue bear’, Sogd. axsēn),

xašēnsār ‘dark-coloured, a kind of duck’.

§ 2.11.4. Syncope

In the penultimate syllable a short, unstressed vowel is lost if it be between two identical plosives or a non-obstruent and a plosive.

mēg (and not mayag) ‘locust, grasshopper’ < *mádakă- (Av. maδaxa- m., maδaxā- f., Bal. maδax, madag, Pers. میگ , ملخ ).

pahn ‘broad, wide’ < *páθana- (Av. paθana- adj., Sogd. paθnē, Bal. patan, Pašt. plǝn < *paθána-, Osset. fætæn, Bal. patan, cf. Khot. phattanai ‘palate of mouth’), pahnā ‘breadth’ (Paz. pahanāe, Lakī peynī).

vīst ‘20’ < *u̯ī́sati.

yazd (also īzad < *i̯azáta-, yazed) ‘adorable, divine being, deity’ < *i̯ázata- (Av. yazata- adj., Skt. yajatá-, Khot. gyasta-/ jasta-, Osset. izæd, Paz. yazat̰).

zard/ zerd ‘yellow, tawny’ < *zárita-.