Verb

 
<Extracted from the Part I, section 5, The Verb of the book Pārsīg Language (The so-called Pahlavi): Parts of Speech, Word Formation, and Phonology, Sade publication, 2017, written by Raham Asha>
 
 
The grammatical categories of finite verbal forms are person (first, second, and third), number (singular and plural), tense (present and possibly imperfect), mood (indicative, subjunctive and optative) and voice (active).
 

§ 1. Verbal Stem Formation

 

1.1.

The Pārsīg verbal system is characterized by the dichotomy of present stem and past stem.
The present stem is to be traced back to the older present stem, thematic or thematized as *a-present / *ai̯a-present, from which are formed present tenses, causative and passive stems, present and active participles, etc. The Pārsīg also produces denominal present stems.
The transition from Old Persian to Pārsīg is characterized by replacing the verbal inflection in past tenses by preterite, and also by the emergence of “ergative” construction. The past stem goes back to the older *ta-participle, and is used in periphrastic constructions with auxiliary verbs.
A primary past stem ends in -t (°f-t, °x-t, °š-t, °s-t) or -d (°V-d, °n-d, °r-d).
A secondary past stem is formed by adding -īd, -ād (Parth. -ād), or -ist to the present stem.
 
 

1.1.1. present stem (Spresent): primary past stem (Spast)

abespār-/ abespārdan ‘to deliver, entrust; convey; transmit’< *upa-spār-ai̯a-.
kaf-/ kaftan ‘to fall, befall’ < *kap, *kap-a-: kap-ta-.
kan-/ kandan ‘to dig’ < *kan, *kan-a-: kanta- (Av. kan-, kana- pres., kaṇta- ppp.).
mān-/ māndan ‘to stay, remain; inhabit, live’ < *mān-ai̯a- (OPers. mānaya- pres., a-m-a-n-y imp.).
nas-/ nastan ‘to perish’ < *nas-i̯a- (Av. nasya- pres., Parth. abnas-/ abnastan).
parvardan ‘to nourish, nurture, feed, foster; bring up’ < *pari-u̯arHz-ai̯a- (Av. varǝzaya- pres., Parth. parvarz-/ parvarzādan).
pāy-/ pādan ‘to protect, preserve, defend, take care’ < *paH-ai̯a- (Av. pā-, păya- pres., pāta- ppp.).
riš-/ rištan ‘to be wounded’ < *riši̯a-: rišta- (Av. irišya- pres., irišta- ppp.).
xvardan ‘to take, eat’ < *hu̯ar-a-: *hu̯arta- (Av. xvar, xvara- pres., °xvarǝta-, Parth. vxar-, Sogd. xvǝr-: xvǝrd-).
 

Consonant alternation.

There are some cases where consonants are involved in the alternation between present stem and past tense stem.
 
°m-, °b-/ °v-: °ft
ahrām-/ ahrāftan ‘to lift up, ascend, raise’ < *ati-rāmai̯a-,
also nirām-/ nirāftan ‘descend, throw down’ < *ni-rāmai̯a-.
ānām- (secondary ānāb-)/ ānāftan ‘to remove (oneself), drive away’ < *ā-nam, *nama- pres., *nām-ai̯a- caus. pres.
also abnām-/ abnāftan ‘to let (somebody) go out’ < apa-nāmai̯a-.
franam-/ franaftan ‘to go forth, proceed, depart’ < *fra-nam, *°nama- (Av. fra-nəma- pres., fra-nata- ppp.).
frazām-/ frazāftan ‘to finish’ < *fra-gam, *fra-jām-ai̯a-: *°jāmta- (Av. fra-jāmaya- caus. pres., °gata- ppp.).
hanzām- (later hanzāb-)/ hanzāftan ‘to finish, end (trans.)’ < *ham-gam, *ham-jām-ai̯a- (Av. ham-gam ‘to come together’, OPers. hangmata- ppp., Parth. hanjām-/ hanjāmād),
hangām-/ hangāftan ‘to gather, unite’ < *ham-gām-ai̯a- (cf. Germ. an-kommen ‘to arrive’, an-kunft ‘arrival’).
pezām-/ pezāftan ‘to ripen, mature; cause to ripen’ < *pati-jām-ai̯a-.
rav-/ raftan ‘to go, walk; continue; behave’ < *Hráb-a- : *Hrafta-.
zām-/ zāftan ‘to lead, send’ < *jām-ai̯a-: *jāmta- (Av. gam, jāmaya- caus. pres.),
also zāmēnīdan ‘id.’ (Paz. jāmin-).
 
°nn, °h, °y : °st
bann-/ bastan ‘to bind, tie on, fetter; arrest’ < *band, *band-ai̯a- (Av. baṇda- pres., basta- ppp., OPers. basta-, Parth. band-/ bastan).
nibey-, nibah-/ nibastan ‘to lie down (with)’ < *ni-pad-i̯a- (Av. nī paiδya- pres.),
nibāy-, nibāh-/ nibāstan ‘to lay down, throw down’ < *ni-pād-ai̯a- (Skt. ni-pādayati).
vīrāy-/ vīrāstan ‘to arrange, order, lay out; restore’ < *u̯i-rād-ái̯a- (OPers. rāsta- ‘right, straight’, Av. rāzaya- pres., răšta- ppp., Parth. vīrāz-/ vīrāštan).
 
°l, °r-, °rd, (°rz), (°rs), °s, °z: °št
dār-/ dāštan ‘to hold; have’ < *dar, *dār-ai̯a- (Av. dāraya- caus. pres., °dǝrǝta- ppp., OPers. dāraya- caus. pres., dāriya- pass. pres., Parth. dār-/ dird).
hil-/ hištan ‘to leave, allow, dismiss, abandon, let go’ < *hṛda-/ *hṛšta- (Av. hǝrǝza- pres., °haršta- ppp., Parth. hirz-/ hištan).
tirs-/ tištan* ‘to fear, be afraid, dread’ < *tṛsa-: *tṛšta- (Parth. tirs-, tištan ‘fear, dread’).
vard-/ vaštan ‘to turn, whirl; change; swing’ < *u̯art-a-/ *u̯arsta- (Av. varǝta- pres., Skt. vṛttá- ppp.).
vidar- (vider-)/ vidaštan (vidurdan) ‘to pass’ < * u̯i-tar, u̯i-tar-ai̯a- (Av. vī-tərətō° ppp., OPers. vi-taraya- caus., Parth. viδar-/ viδirdan).
yaz-/ yaštan ‘to worship, consecrate, sacrifice’ < *i̯az-a- (OPers. yada-, Av. yaza- pres., išta- ppp.)
 
°nz, °z, °s, °(x)š : °xt
āhanz- (āhinz-)/ āhaxtan (āhixtan) ‘to draw (up, out), pull up, extract; attract; flay off (the skin)’ < *ā-θanj-ai̯a-: *ā-θaxta- (Av. θanjaya- pres., Parth. āhinj-/ āhixtan, Paz. āhanž-).
baxš-/ baxtan ‘to divide, distribute’ < *bag, *baxš-, *baxš-a- (Av. baxša- pres., baxta- ppp.).
frōxš-, frōš-/ frōxtan ‘to sell’ < *frá-u̯axša-: *frá-u̯axta- (Av. fra uxšya- pres., Tālišī havate, Paz. frōh-/ frōxtan).
šnās-/ šnāxtan ‘to know, recognize; distinguish’ < *xšnā-sa- inch. pres., *xšnāta- ppp. (OPers. xšnāsa-).
vāz-/ vāxtan ‘to say, tell, speak, utter, pronounce’ < *u̯āc-ai̯a-/ *u̯āxta- (Av. vac, °uxta- ppp., Skt. vac, uktá-, Parth. vāž-, Zaz. vāǰ-).
 

Vowel alternation

bar-/ burdan ‘to bear, carry’ < *bar, *bar-a- (Av. bara- pres., bərəta- ppp. OPers. bara- pres., °bṛta- ppp.).
b-, bav-/ būdan ‘to be, become’ < *bū, *bau̯-a- (Av. bava- pres., būta- ppp., OPers. bava- pres.).
nixvar-/ nixvārdan, nixvurdan ‘to be in hurry, hurry; hasten’ < *ni-θβar-a-/ *nitu̯ar-a-/ ni-θβṛta-/ nitu̯ṛta-
 

Vowel and consonant alternation.

āxēz-/ āxistan ‘to stand up, rise (up); arouse’ < *ā-hai̯z-ai̯a- (Parth. āxēz-/ āxāšt, Paz. āxə̄ž-).
āgōz-/ āguxtan (secondary āgustan) ‘to hang up, suspend’ < *āgau̯c-ai̯a- (Sogd. ākōc/ ākuγd).
brēz-/ brištan ‘to roast, fry’ < *brai̯j-a(i̯a)- (Skt. bhṛṣṭa- ppp., Bal. brēj-ag).
būz-/ bōxtan ‘to release; save’ < *buj, *buj-ai̯a- (Av. būja-, būjaya- pres., Parth. būž-/ būžād).
cēh-/ cistan* ‘to take notice of, remark’ < *cai̯θ-(ai̯)a- (cf. Av. G cōiθat̰ aor. act. sg.3, cisti- f. ‘understanding’, Skt. cittá- ppp.),
nizēh-/ nizistan ‘to teach’ < *ni-cai̯θ-ai̯a-
vizēh-/ vizistan ‘to teach’ < *u̯i-cai̯θ-ai̯a-.
dah- (day-)/ dādan ‘to give, put; create’ < *dā, *dad-a-/ *dāta- (Av. dad-, daδā-/ dada- pres., dāta- ppp., OPers. dā, dada-, Parth. dah-/ dāδan).
dēs-/ dišt ‘to construct, build; shape, form’ < *dai̯z-ai̯a-/ *dišta-.
dōš-/ duxtan ‘to milk’ < *dau̯xš-ai̯a-/ *duxta- (Osset. I dūcyn, D docun, Bal. dōšaγ, Pašt. lwaš-).
gōb- (gōv-)/ guftan ‘to say’ < *gub, *gau̯b-a-/ *gubta- (OPers. gauba- pres., Sogd. γōβ-/ γuβt- ‘to praise’, Bactr. γοβ- ‘to say, state’).
kun-/ kirdan ‘to do, make; perform; write’ < *kun-a-/*karta- (OPers. kun-, kunau- pres., kunautiy, karta- ppp., Av. kar, kǝrǝnao-, kǝrǝta-, Sogd. kun-/ ǝkǝrt, Osset. kænyn, Bal. kan-ag, Paz. kun-/ kardan).
mīr-/ murdan ‘to die’ < *mar, *mṛ-i̯a-/ *mṛta- (Av. mirya- pres., °mǝrǝta-/ °marǝta- ppp.).
rōb-/ ruftan ‘to rub, sweep’ < *rau̯p-a-: *rupta-,
virōb-/ viruftan ‘to sweep (away)’ < *u̯i-rau̯p-a-.
rōy-/ rustan ‘to grow’ < *rau̯da- (Av. ruδ, raoδa- pres., uruzda-/ urusta- ppp.).
sōz-/ suxtan ‘to burn’ < *suc, *sau̯c-a(i̯a)-/ suxta- (Av. saocaya- pres., °suxta- ppp., Skt. śócati, Khot. sūjs-, Sogd. sōc-/ suγd).
šōy-/ šustan ‘to wash’ < *xšau̯d-ai̯a-/ *xšusta- (Av. xšusta-, Parth. šōδ-/ šustan).
 

1.1.2. present stem: secondary past stem

dōš-/ dōšistan ‘to love’ < *zuš, *zaoš-ai̯a- (Av. zušta- ppp.; OPers. dauštar- ‘friend’, Parth. zōš ‘love’).
kām- / kāmistan ‘to wish, desire’ < *kam, *kām-ai̯a- (cf. Skt. kāmáyate, Parth. kām-/ kāmād).
men-/ menīdan ‘to think’ < *man-i̯a- (OPers. maniya-, Av. manya- pres., mata- ppp., Paz. min-).
vind- (vinn-) / vindādan ‘to find’ < *u̯id, *u̯ind-a- (Av. vīnad-/ viṇd- pres., vista- ppp.).
 

1.1.3. present stem: primary and secondary past stems

bēš-/ bēšīdan, bištan, bēšistan ‘to hurt’ < *du̯iš, *du̯iš-ai̯a- (Av. t̰biš/ G daibiš, t̰biš(ya)-/ G daibiš(ya)- pres., t̰bišta-/ δbišta- ppp.).
dam-/ damīdan, daftan ‘to blow; fan the fire’ < *dam, *dam-a- (cf. Skt. dhámati, dhmātá-, dhamitá-).
vard-, gard-/ vaštan, gaštan ‘to turn’ < *u̯art, *u̯art-a-, *u̯arsta- (Av. varǝta- pres.).
vaxš-/ vaxt, vaxšīdan ‘to wax, grow; kindle’ < *u̯akš, *u̯akš-ai̯a- (Av. °uxša- pres., vaxšaya- caus. pres.).
 

1.1.4. Stem allomorphy

 
In some cases the present and past stems of a verb have no phonological connection at all to the related forms their paradigm (suppletion of stems).
(a)h-/ būdan ‘to be’ < *ah, *ah-/ *h-, *bū (Av. ah-, h- pres., ahmi ‘am’, asti ‘is’, būta- ppp., OPers. ahmiy/ amiy ‘am’, astiy ‘is’, Parth. ah-/ būd).
āy-/ madan, āmadan ‘to come’ < *ā-i̯-a-, *ā-gma-ta- (Av. ā-i, āy- pres., °ita- ppp., OPers. ā-i-, °ita-; Av. ā-gam, gata-, gmata-, γǝmata- ppp., OPers. °gmata- ppp.,
cf. also Parth. ās-/ gadan, āγadan, Khwar. ʾs-: ʾγd, Sogd. ēs-: āγət, Bactr. ηρσ-: αγαδο).
kār-/ kištan ‘to sow, plant’ < *kar, *kār-ai̯a-, *kṛš-ta- (Av. kāraya- caus. pres., karšta- ppp., Sogd. kēr-: kišt).
vēn- / dīdan ‘to see, observe’ < *u̯ai̯n-a-, *di-ta- (Av. vaēna- pres., °dīta- ppp., OPers. vaina- pres., Sogd. vēn-: vīt, Bactr. οην-, οιν-: λιδο).
 
  • Note that dāšt could be the suppletive past stem of dār- / dāštan ‘to hold’ < *dār-ai̯a-, and may come from darz-/ dištan ‘to tie on, fasten’ (*dāršta- is the lengthened form of *dṛšta-).
 
 

1.2. The causative

 

1.2.1.

A number of old causative stems have survived, but they only have transitive function.
abnām-/ abnāftan ‘to let (somebody) go out’ < apa-nāmai̯a-.
afsār-/ afsārdan ‘to cool, congeal, cause to freeze; extinguish (fire)’ < *apa-sār-ai̯a-
cf. afsar-/ afsurdan ‘to cool down, freeze, congeal’.
ānām-/ ānāftan ‘to remove, drive away’ < ā-nāmai̯a-.
āsāy-/ āsūdan ‘to rest, repose, tranquilize’ < *ā-sāi̯-ai̯a-,
visāy-/ visūdan ‘to rest (and watch alternately)’ < *u̯i-sāi̯-ai̯a- (cf. Skt. viśāya- m. ‘sleeping and watching alternately’),
cf. say-/ sĭdan ‘to lie down, sleep’ < *sai̯-a-: *sita- (Av. saē- pres., sita- ppp.).
franām-/ franāftan ‘to conduct’ < *fra-nām-ai̯a- (Av. fra-nāmaya- caus. pres.),
cf. franam-/ franaftan ‘to go forth, proceed’.
hambāh-/ hambāstan ‘to cast down, demolish, crash’ < *ham-pād-ai̯a- (Av. ham-pad, paiδya- pres., hąm.paiθyete),
cf. hambah-/ hambastan ‘to collapse’.
handās- ‘to abandon, let’ (āstār handās- ‘to forgive sin’) < *ham-dās-ai̯a- (Khot. dāśś- ‘to complete, finish’, Parth. andās-),
cf. handas- ‘to come to an end, cease, stop’.
hāz-/ hāxtan ‘to guide; convert; entice’ < *hāc-ai̯a- (Av. hac-/ sc-, haca- pres., hăcaya- caus., °haxta-, Skt. sácate),
cf. haz-/ haxtan ‘to follow’.
nibāy- (nibāh-)/ nibāstan ‘to throw down, lay down, fell’ < *ni-pād-ai̯a- (Av. ni-pad, paiδya- pres., Skt. ni-pādaya-ti caus. pres., Parth. nibāy-, Sogd. nipēδ-)
cf. nibay-, nibey-/ nibastan ‘to lie down’ < *ni-pad (Av. nipaiδya- pres.).
nigār-/ nigārdan ‘to paint, draw, portray, design’ < *ni-kār-ai̯a- (Av. °kāraya-, haṇkāraya-, cf. Skt. kāraya- pres. caus. of kṛ),
cf. also hangār-/ hangārdan, hangāštan ‘to account’,
pehikārdan ‘to dispute’,
uskārdan ‘to consider, discuss’.
nišāy- / nišāstan ‘to set down, place, establish’ < *had, *ni-šād-ai̯a- (Av. ni-šāδaya- caus. pres., OPers. ni-šādaya- caus. pres.),
cf. nišīy- / nišastan ‘to sit (down)’ < *ni-šīd-a- (Av. nišhiδa- pres., °šta-, °šasta-, Paz. nišīn-, Parth. nišīδ-).
ōsān-/ ōsānīdan ‘to throw down, push off’ < *au̯a-sānai̯a-,
cf. ōsan-/ ōsadan ‘to descend’.
rēš-/ rēšīdan ‘to wound’ < *rai̯šai̯a- (Av. raēšaya- caus. pres.),
cf. riš-/ rištan ‘to be wounded’ < *riši̯a-: rišta- (Av. irišya- pres., irišta- ppp.).
sān-/ sānīdan ‘to raise, ascend’ < *sānai̯a- (Khot. sāñ-, Sogd. sēn- ‘to raise’),
cf. san-/ sadan ‘to ascend, go up, rise’.
šāvīdan ‘to set apart; send’ < *ci̯āu̯-ai̯a- (Av. śyāvaya- caus. pres.),
cf. šav-/ šudan ‘to go’.
vidār-/ vidārdan ‘to convey across, transport’ < *u̯i-tār-ai̯a- (OPers. vi-taraya- caus. pres.),
cf. vidar-/ vidurdan, vidaštan ‘to pass, cross’.
vinār-/ vinārdan ‘to establish’ < *u̯i-dār-ai̯a- caus. pres. (Av. vī.dāraya- caus. pres.),
cf. vinir-/ vinirdan ‘to take up position, be established’ < *u̯i-dṛi̯a- pres.)
ušmār-, ǝšmār-/ ušmārdan ‘to count’ < *hmar, *hmār-ai̯a- caus. pres. (Av. mar, mara-, °hišmara- pres., māraya- caus. pres., Sogd. ǝšmār).
visān- (visāy-)/ visāndan ‘to decompose’ < *u̯i-sād-ai̯a- caus. pres.,
cf. visin- (visiy-)/ visistan ‘to tear, split’ < *u̯i-sid-a- (Av. °sista- ppp.).
 
 

1.2.2.

A normal causative stem is formed by adding the causative marker -ēn- (seemingly from *-ai̯anai̯a) to the present stem.
burzēnīdan caus. ‘to cause to hold in esteem’ < *bṛj-ai̯anai̯a- caus. pres.,
cf. burz-/ burzīdan trans. ‘to esteem, honour’ < *barj, *bṛj-ai̯a- pres. (Av. bərəjya- pres., bərəxδa- ppp.).
fravēnīdan ‘to blow out (a fire); cause to extinguish; make (the fire) slow down’ < *frau̯-ai̯anai̯a- caus.,
cf. frav- 1. ‘to blow on (as the wind)’; 2. ‘to wash, bathe’ < *frau̯-a- (Av. fru, frava- pres., Skt. plav, plávate, Šuγ. firǟw- ‘to wash, rinse’),
fravīdan ī ātaš ‘to extinguish a fire by blowing’.
vardēnīdan caus. ‘to cause to turn, twist’ < *u̯art-anai̯a-,
cf. vard-/ vaštan ‘to turn’.
vaxšēnīdan caus. ‘to make grow; light a fire’ < *u̯akš-anai̯a-,
cf. vaxš-/ vaxtan ‘to wax’.
zīvēnīdan caus. ‘to give life, resuscitate’ < *jīu̯-ai̯anai̯a- caus. (Av. jvaya- caus. pres.),
cf. zīv-/ zīstan intrans. ‘to live’ < *j(ī)u̯, *jīu̯a- pres., *ju̯ai̯a- caus. pres. (Av. jva- pres., Parth. žīv-).
sārēnīdan ‘to provoke, incite, instigate, egg on’ < *sārai̯anai̯a- (Paz. sārin-). As we see, the suffix -ēn- has been added to the old causative stem sār-;
cf. sēr- ‘to be provoked, become angry’ < *sari̯a-.
 
 

1.2.3.

In the case of a few causatives the original stem is not used or it is only used with preverbs.
dabēnīdan 3 caus. ‘to deceive’ < *dab-ai̯anai̯a- (Av. daba-/ dava- pres., dābaya-/ davaya- caus. pres.),
cf. dab-/ daftan in frēb-/ frēftan, vīb-/ vīftan.
mayēnīdan caus. ‘to intoxicate’ (denominative from may ‘to become intoxicated’) < *mad, *mad-ai̯anai̯a- (Av. maδaya- caus. pres.),
cf. *may-/ mastan ‘to become intoxicated’4.
rāyēnīdan caus. ‘to organize, arrange’ < *rāz-ai̯anai̯a-,
cf. °rāy-/ °rāstan ‘to draw a line; straighten’ in pey-rāy-, vī-rāy- < *raz, rāz-ai̯a- (Av. rāzaya- pres., rāšta- ppp.).
 
 

1.3. The Passive

 

1.3.1.

A small number of old passive stems have
abesīh-/ abesistan, abesīhīdan ‘to be destroyed’ < *apa-sid, *apa-sid-i̯a- pass. pres. (Av. °sista- ppp., Skt. chidya- pass.),
cf. abesih-, abesin-/ abesistan ‘to destroy’ < *apa-sid-a-/ °sin-a.
kir-, kirīy-/ kirīhistan ‘to be done’ < *kar, *kṛ-i̯a- passive pres. (Av. kirya- pass. pres., kiryeiti, OPers. °kəriya-, Paz. kunih-, Parth. krh- /karih-/, Sogd. kir-).
cf. akirī imperf. Pass. ‘it has been done’ < *akṛii̯at (OPers. akariya, Skt. akriyáta).
ešmīr-, ušmīr-/ ušmīrdan ‘to be counted’ < *hmar-i̯a- pass. (Skt. smarya- pass.),
cf. ušmar-, ešmar-/ ušmurdan ‘to count’.
škīh-, škīy-/ škīhistan ‘to be broken’ < *skind, *skid-i̯a- (Av. sciṇdaya- pres.),
cf. šken(n)-/ škastan ‘to break’.
 

1.3.2.

A normal present passive stem is formed by adding -īy- or -īh- (from *-i̯a) [: -īyist/ -īhist] to the present stem.
barīh-/ barīhistan pass. ‘to be carried’ < *bar-i̯a- pass. pres. (OPers. bariya- pass. pres., Av. bairya-),
cf. bar-/ burdan.
gōbīh-/ gōbīhistan pass. ‘to be said’ < *gau̯b-i̯a-,
cf. gōb-/ guftan.
vānīh-/ vānīhistan ‘to be conquered’ < *u̯ān-i̯a-,
cf. vān-/ vānīdan ‘to win, conquer’ < *u̯an, *u̯an-ai̯a-, or *vān-ai̯a-.
 
 

1.4. The Denominative

 

1.4.1.

There exist a number of present stems which are, in principle, denominal.
drab-/ draftan ‘to wear’ < *drap-a- (cf. Skt. drāpi- m. ‘mantle’, French drap).
fšōn-/ ~īd ‘to breed or tend cattle’ < *fšaun-ai̯a- (Av. fšu- m. ‘cattle’, fšuya- denom. ‘to tend cattle’, fšaoni- f. ‘prairie, cattle’, fšaonaya- mid. denom. ‘to take cattle to pasture’).
parr-/ parristan intrans. ‘to fly (in the air)’ < *parn-ai̯a- denom. pres. (Av. parəna- nt. ‘feather, wing’).
duz(d)īdan trans. ‘to steal’ < *dužd-ai̯a- (Av. duždāh- adj. ‘of evil gifts, malevolent’, Paz. dužd-).
kām-/ kāmistan ‘to desire, will’ < *kām-ai̯a- (Av. kāma- m. ‘wish, will’, Parth. kām-: kāmādan).
cf. also fragām-/ fragāmistan ‘to desire’.
 

1.4.2.

Denominative stems are usually formed by the addition of -ēn- < *-ai̯anai̯a: -ēnīd to nominals; they have an active meaning or a transitive function.
bīmēnīdan ‘to frighten’ from bīm ‘fear’ < *bī, *bīma-.
dardēnīdan ‘to make somebody suffer, upset somebody’ from dard ‘pain’ < *dar, *darta-.
nāmēnīdan ‘to name, denominate’ from nām ‘name’ < *nāman-.
pērōzēnīdan ‘to make (somebody) victorious’ from pērōz adj. ‘victorious’ < *parii̯-au̯jah-.
xvēšēnīdan ‘to appropriate, make one’s own’ from xvēš possessive pronoun, also used as an adjective ‘own’ < *hu̯ai̯paθi̯a-.
zīndagēnīdan ‘to bring to life’ from zīndag verbal adjective (present participle) ‘living’ < *jīu̯ant-a-ka-.
bōxtēnīdan ‘to cause to be saved’ from bōxt verbal adjective (past participle) ‘saved’ < *bau̯xta-.
abāgēnīdan ‘to put together, join’ from abāg preposition/ postposition ‘with’, adverb ‘together’, also used as an adjective ‘associated with, joined’ < *upākai̯.
 

1.4.3.

By the addition of -īh-: -īhist to nominals the present stems may take on the passive meaning or the intransitive function.
dardīhistan ‘to suffer pain’ from dard.
nāmīhistan ‘to be named; assume a name’ from nām.
āškār(āg)īhistan ‘to become manifest’ from āškār(āg) ‘patent, manifest; public’ < *āu̯iš-kār°.
xvēšīhistan ‘to be possessed’ from xvēš.
 
 

1.5. The old “inchoative”

There exist a number of present stems which indeed stem from old inchoatives (*-sa- < *-sća- < *-sḱe/o-).
āyās-/ āyāstan ‘to remember, be mindful of’ < *abi-i̯ā-sa- (Parth. aβyās-).
cf. āyād ‘memory’ < *abi-i̯āti- (ἀβιάτακα from OPers. *abiyātaka-; Parth. aβyāδ, Sogd. ǝβyāt, Khot. byāta-);
āyādēnīdan denom. ‘to remember, recall to someone’.
bōxs-/ bōxtan ‘to be saved’ < *bau̯g-sa- (Sogd. βōγs-/ βōxs-).
cf. būz-/ bōxtan.
draxs-/ draxtan ‘to endure, maintain (oneself)’ < *drang-sa-.
cf. drenz-/ draxtan ‘to maintain, fix’ < *dranj-ai̯a- (Av. drǝṇjaya- pres., °draxta- ppp.).
frazafs- (also frazufs-): frazaftan ‘to come to an end, become perfect’ < *fra-jam-sa-: *fra-jam-ta-.
gumixs-/ gumixtan ‘to be mingled’ < *u̯i-mik-s-sa- (Parth. vimixs-),
cf. gumēz-/ gumixtan ‘to mix; blend’.
cf. also āmixs-/ āmixtan ‘to be mixed’.
hambūs-/ hambūsīdan ‘to come into being, be conceived’ < *ham-bū-sa- (Paz. hambūš-, Pers. انبوسیدن ‘to appear’).
hamuxs-/ hamuxtan ‘to learn’ < *hamuk-sa- (Parth. āmuxs-/ āmuxtan, Xvar. ʾmxs- inch.).
cf. hamōz-/ hamuxtan
hanzafs-/ hanzaftan ‘to come to an end, end (intr.)’ < *ham-jam-sa-: *ham-jam-ta- (Parth. hanjasp-/ hanjaftan),
cf. hanzām-/ hanzāftan
haxs-/ haxtan ‘to follow, pursue’ < *hak-sa- (Parth. haxs-),
cf. haz-, hāz-.
nirfs-/ nirfsīdan ‘to wane, decrease’ < *narp, nṛp-sa- (Av. nǝrǝfsa- inch. pres.).
purs-/ pursīdan ‘to ask’ < *fras, *pṛsa- < *pṛć-sća- (Av. pǝrǝsa- inch. pres., OPers. pṛsa-).
ras-/ rasīdan ‘to arrive, reach’ < *ar, *rasa- (OPers. rasa-).
šārs-/ šārsīdan ‘to be put to shame, be in awe of’ < *fšārsa- (Parth. šfars-).
šnās-/ šnāxtan ‘to get to know, recognize’ < *xšnā-sa- (Av. xšnā[sa]-, OPers. xšnāsa- inch. pres.).
cf. dān-/ dānistan ‘to know’ (Av. zānā-, °zān- pres., OPers. dān-ā- pres., Parth. zān-/ zānādan).
tafs-/ taftan ‘to grow hot’ < *tap-sa- (Av. tap, tafsa- inch. pres., tāpaya- caus. pres., °tapta- ppp.).
cf. tāb-/ taftan, tāftan ‘to heat; shine’.
vīfs-/ viftan ‘to be seduced, be deceived’ < *u̯i-dab-sa- (Parth. viδəfs-, Paz. vahə̄fs-).
cf. vīb-/ vīftan ‘to seduce, allure; err’.
vigrās-, vīrās-/ vigrādan, vigrāstan ‘to awake’ < *(u̯i-)gri-sa- < *gri-sḱe/o- (Av. °gāraya- caus. pres., °γrisa- inch. pres., Gil. vīrīs- ‘to awake’).
xvafs-/ xvaftan ‘to sleep’ < *hu̯ap-sa- (Av. xvap, °xvabda- pres., xvafsa- inch. pres., xvapta- ppp., Parth. vxasp-, xvasp-/ xvaftan).
xvis- /xvistan ‘to sweat, perspire’ < *hu̯ĭsa-: *hu̯ista- (Av. xvid, xvīsa- inch. pres., Pers. خیس ).
 
 

1.6. A special passive form

A number of past stems in -xt- (< *-x-ta-) and -ft- (< *-p/ f/ m-ta-) and also in -xs- and -fs- (< *-p/ f/ x-sa- inch. pres.) have present stems in -xt- and -ft- with a passive meaning.
ānāft-/ ānāftīdan ‘to be removed’, cf. ānām-/ ānāftan.
and and ped zanišn ī vād ī garm hān gennagīh ud sōrīh ānāfted. Bd 84
bōxt-/ bōxtīdan ‘to be saved, be delivered’, cf. bōxs-.
āškārag abar dahed [kū : bē bōxted]. Dk vii, M 654
gumixt-/ gumixtīdan, vimixt-/ vimixtīdan ‘to be mixed’, cf. gumixs-.
yat̰ aēša pąsnu raeθβāt̰ : dā ka ō xāk gumixted. Vd 7.50
hamuxt-/ hamuxtīdan ‘to be taught, learn’, cf. hamuxs-.
hamuxted az hērbed. DD 44.3
xvaft-/ xvaftīdan ‘to be slept’, cf. xvafs-ed.
ka hamāg mardōmān nē xvaftend. Bd 129
 
 

1.7. A special “imperative” stem

avar-, ōr- (Av. avarə̄ adv. ‘downwards’),
avar! avared! ‘come hither!’
 
 
 

§ 2. Verb inflection

 

2.1. Person-number markers

The present endings determine the first, second and third persons in singular and plural. The past stem has no ending.
 

2.1.1. Indicative

 
The personal endings of the present indicative are as follows:
(-V: a, e, or u)
ㅤ
singular
plural
First
-Vm < *-āmi, *-ai̯āmi
-Vm < *-āmahi, *-ai̯āmahi
Second
-ē, -eh < *-ahi, *-ai̯ahi
-ed (-eh) < *aθa, *-ai̯a-θa
Third
-ed < *-ati, *-ai̯ati
-end < *-anti, *ai̯a-nti
 
 

2.1.2. Subjunctive

 
The paradigm of the present subjunctive is as follows:
ㅤ
singular
plural
First
-ān, (-āni) < *-ā-ni, *-ai̯ā-ni
-ām < *-āmah, *-ai̯ā-ma
Second
-ā, -āy < *-āhi, *-ai̯ā-hi
-ād < *-āθa/ *-āta-, *-ai̯ā-ta
Third
-ād < *-āti, *-āt, *-ai̯āt, *-ai̯āti
-ānd < *-ānti, *-ai̯ā-nti
 

2.1.3. Optative

 
The present optative takes the verbal endings as follows:
ㅤ
singular
plural
First
-ēm, -ē < *-ai̯m, *-ai̯ai̯m
-ēm < *-ai̯ma, *-ai̯ai̯ma
Second
-ēš, -ē < *-ai̯š, *-ai̯ai̯š
-ēd < *-ai̯ta, *-ai̯ai̯ta
Third
-ē, -ēh < -ēd < *-ai̯t, *-ai̯ai̯t
-ēnd < *-ai̯ant, *-ai̯ai̯ant
 

2.1.4. Imperative

 
The “regular” imperative is second singular or else second plural.
ㅤ
singular
plural
Second
-ø < *-a, -ē < *-ai̯a
-ed < *-ai̯ata
 
 

2.2 The Auxiliary Verbs

Three verbs are used as auxiliaries in the periphrastic tenses.
 

2.2.1.

h- ‘to be, exist’ (Av. ah, ah/ h-pres., OPers. ah, Parth. ah).
Indicative
sg. 1 ham/ hum/ hem (Av. ahmi/ G ahmī, OPers. ahmiy/ ahmiy, Parth. ahem, hem)
sg. 2 hē (Av. ahi/ G ahī, Parth. ē)
sg. 3 ast/ est ‘is’ (Av. asti/ G astī, OPers. astiy), nē ast/ nēst ‘is not’
pl. 1 hem/ ham/ hum(Av. hmahi/ G hmahī, OPers. ahmahi, Parth. hem, hemāδ)
pl. 2 hed (Av. stā, Parth. hed)
pl. 3 hend (Av. həṇti/ G həṇtī, OPers. hantiy, Parth. ahend)
Subjunctive
sg. 1 hān (Av. aŋhā, OPers. ahaniy, Parth. ahān)
sg. 2 hā/ hāy (Av. aŋhō, OPers. a-h-y /āhi/ < *ahahi, Parth. ahāh)
sg. 3 hād (AV. aŋhat̰, OPers. ahatiy, Parth. ahāδ)
pl. 1 hām (Av. åŋhāma, Skt. ásāma, Parth. ahām)
pl. 2 hād < *h-āta- (cf. Skt. as-atha)
pl. 3 hānd (Av. aŋhən, Parth. ahānd)
Optative
sg. 1 hēm (Av. G x́yə̄m)
sg. 2 hēš (Av. x́yå, Parth. ahēndēh)
sg. 3 hē (Av. hyāt̰/ G x́iiāt̰, Parth. ahēndē)
pl. 1 hēm (Av. x́yāma)
pl. 2 hēd (Av. x́yātā)
pl. 3 hēnd (Av. hyārə, Parth. ahēndēh), hendē
(agar man nē dād hē mēnōg būm ud deh, harvisp mardōm bē ō Ērānvēz šud hendē xvašīh ī ānōh rāy. Bd 205)
Imperfect
Here is the full paradigm of the imperfect of (a)h-; it was mainly used for the third singular and plural:
sg. 1 ānān < *āham (OPers. āham)
sg. 2 *ānā < *āhah
sg. 3 ānād < *āhat (OPers. āhat 3rd sg. imperf., Parth. ahāz, ahāδ 3rd sg. imperf.)
pl. 1 ānām < *āhma
pl. 2 *ānād < *āhta
pl. 3 ānānd < *āhant (OPers. āhan 3rd pl. imperf., āhantā mid.)
 

2.2.2.

b-, bav-/ būdan ‘to be, become’ (Av. bū, bavapres., OPers. bava, Parth. bav), būd past stem (Av. būta- ppp., Parth. būδ).
Indicative
sg. 1 bavam/ bavem, bam/ bum/ bem < *bau̯āmi (Av. °abaom/ OPers. abavam imperf., Parth. bavām indic.)
sg. 2 bavē/ baveh, bē / beh< *bau̯ahi (Parth. baveh)
sg. 3 baved, bed < *bau̯ati (Av. bavaiti, OPers. bavatiy, Parth. baveδ)
pl. 1 bavem/ bavam , bem/ bam/ bum < *bau̯āmah (Parth. bavām)
pl. 2 baved, bed < *bau̯aθa (Parth. baveδ)
pl. 3 bavend, bend < *bau̯anti (Av. bavaiṇti, OPers. bavantiy, Parth. bavend)
Subjunctive
sg. 1 bavān < *bau̯āni (Av. bavāni, Parth. bavān)
sg. 2 bavā/ bavāy < *bau̯āhi (Av. bavāhi, Parth. bavāh, bavā)
sg. 3 bavād, bād < *bau̯āt, *bau̯āti (Av. bavāt̰, OPers. bavātiy, Parth. bavāh, bavā)
pl. 1 bavām < *bau̯āma (Av. bavāma, Parth. bavām)
pl. 2 bavād, bād < *bau̯āta
pl. 3 bavānd, bānd < *bau̯ānti (Av. bavāṇti)
Optative
sg. 1 bavēm, bēm < *bau̯ai̯m
sg. 2 bēh < *bau̯ai̯š (OPers. biyā, Parth. bavēndēh)
pl. 1 bavēm, bēm < *bau̯ai̯ma
pl. 2 bavēd, bēd < *bau̯ai̯ta
pl. 3 bavēnd, bēnd < *bau̯ai̯nt
Imperative
sg. 2 bāš < *bāšd < *bāušdi (the s-aoristal imperative of bū).
pl. 2 baved, also bed < *bau̯ata (Parth. baveδ)
 

2.2.3.

est, ēst-/ ēstādan ‘to be, stand’ < *(adi)stā, hi-št-a- *(adi)st-a-/ *stāi̯a- (Av. stā, hištapres., OPers. stā, išta, ava-stā-yacaus. pres., Parth. ešt-/ ēšt-).
Indicative
sg. 1 estam/ estum/ estem < *adistāmi (Parth. eštām/ ēštām)
sg. 2 esteh/ estē < *adistahi (Av. hištahe mid., Parth. eštēh)
sg. 3 ested < *adistati (Av. hištaiti, Parth. ešted)
pl. 1 estem/ estam/ estum < *adistāmah (Parth. eštām)
pl. 2 ested < *adistaθa (Parth. ešted)
pl. 3 estend < *adistanti (Av. hištəṇti, Parth. eštend)
Subjunctive
sg. 1 estān < *adistāni (Av. °xštā, °xštāne mid., Parth. °stān)
sg. 2 estā(y) < *adistāhi (Parth. eštāh)
sg. 3 estād < *adistāt, *adistāti (Av. °hištāiti, hištāt̰, °xštāt̰, Parth. eštāh)
pl. 3 estānd < *adistānti (Av. usə-hištąn)
Optative
sg. 2 estēš < *adistai̯š (Av. ava.hištōiš, Parth. eštēndēh)
sg. 3 estē < *adistai̯t (Parth. eštēndēh)
Imperative
sg. 2 est (Av. °hišta, Parth. av-est)
pl. 2 ested (Av. °hištata, Parth. av-ested)
 
 

§ 3. The dual formation of the verb

3.1. Inflectional verb forms

Verb inflection is made by the adding of a present ending to a present stem.
 
 

3.1.1. Indicative

baram ‘(I) carry’ (Av. barāmi) from bar-/ burdan ‘to carry, bear’.
drāyed Gennāg Mēnōg kū : nē barum ō dām-iz ī tō ayyārīh. Bd 5
āvarē ‘(you sg.) bring’ (Av. <ā->barahi) from āvar-/ āvurdan ‘to bring < *ā-bar.
cē ast dēn ī āvarē ? TM 2 I
gōbed/ older gōbd ‘(he/ she) says’ (OPers. gaubataiy) from gōb-, gōv-/ guftan ‘to say’.
cōn dēn gōbed kū. Dk iii, M 207
andar ox ī astumand ped menišn ud gōbišn ud kunišn mihōxt nē mened ud nē gōbed ud nē kuned. CHP 52
menem ‘(we) think’ (Av. mainyāmaide) from menīdan ‘to think, conceive’.
ēdōn ēn menem-iz gōbem-iz ud varzem-iz. Y 35.3
bared ‘(you pl.) carry’ (cf. Skt. bharatha).
tis-iz abāg bē nē bared jud az kunišn ī nēk. J 14
xvānend ‘(they) call’ (Av. °xvanvaiṇti) from xvān-/ xvandan ‘to call’ < *hu̯an.
anārgēl ka abāg šakar xvarend, ped hindūg nārikēla xvānend, ud ped pārsīg gōz ī hindūg xvānend. HKR 50
 
 

3.1.2. Subjunctive

barān ‘I may carry’ (Av. barāni),
pāyān ‘I may keep’ < *pāyāni, cf. pāy-/ pādan ‘to protect, keep’ < *pā,
būzā-m az nišdādīh ī mardōm; kū-t pāyān handarz. Ps 118.134
kunān ‘I will do’.
kē ped ašmāh vināst hād hān-tān dādestān kunān. TM 475 I
barā ‘you (sg.) may carry’ (Av. barāhi),
u-mān ul barā ped humat ud hūxt ud huvaršt. Y 55.4
vardā ‘you may turn’ from vard-/ vaštan.
vardā-m aviš, ud raḥmī-m abar ! Ps 118.132
barād ‘he may carry’,
āvarād ‘it may bring’ (Av. °barāt̰),
vād-it drūd āvarād az vahišt ī bāmīg. ŠnŠ 22.22
rasād ‘it may happen, he may arrive’ from rasīdan ‘to arrive, reach’.
ēdōn cōn-tān xvāst ā-tān hamgōnag bē rasād! J 4
barām ‘we shall carry’ < *barām.
kunām ‘we shall do’ from kun-/ kirdan ‘to do, make’.
hān ōh kunām. N P 15
pahrēzām ‘we shall abide (ped: by)’ from pahrēz-/ pahristan ‘to abide, stay, dwell’ < *pari-xiz.
u-š ped pandān īg rāst pahrēzām. TM 6005
barād ‘you (pl.) may carry’ < *bar-āta
zīvād ‘you will live’ from zīv-/ zīstan ‘to live’ < *jī.
jāyēdān zīvād. Col. R1
barānd ‘they may carry’ (Av. baråṇti, barąn),
dahānd ‘they may give’ from dah-, day-/ dādan.27
kū dā-m zan dahānd. Dk viii, M 714
 

3.1.3. Optative

barēm ‘I would carry’ (cf. Skt. bhareyam),
vizārēm ‘I would perfrom’ from vizārdan ‘to separate; perform; expose’ < *u̯i-car, *u̯i-cār-ai̯a-
kāmag vizārdan ‘to attain what is desired’.
agar-t sahed, man rāy hilē(š) dā abāg tō kāmag vizārēm. HKR 115
vinārēš ‘you would establish’ (Av. vī-δārayōiš),
hilēš ‘you would abandon’ from hil-/ hištan < *harz,
agar jeh hāzē ō kunišn ud abāg-nibēmišnīh ōy mā frāz hilēš. Dk ix, M 809
abar-āhanzēš (Av. paiti.hiṇcōiš ‘you would besprinkle’).
Vd 9.18
nišīyē(h) ‘he would sit’ (Av. nišhiδōit̰),
barē(h) ‘he would carry’ (cf. Skt. bharet).
u-š barēh ō hukird ud virāst zamīg. TM 49 II
srāyēm ‘we would sing’ (Av. srāvayaēmā),
stāyēm ‘we would praise’ from stāy-/ stūdan ‘to praise’ < *stu.
kū-t abāg vādēnān stāyēm. Ps 96.1C
barēd ‘you would carry’ (cf. Skt. bhareta),
framāyēd ‘may you order, please’ from framāy-/ framūdan ‘to order’ < *fra-mā.
ka-tān ped yazdān-pahlumīh sahed, ped tis ī man framāyēd nigerīdan. HKR 18
barēnd ‘they would carry’ (Av. barayǝn),
hilēnd ‘they would release’ (Av. hǝrǝzayǝn).
mā āb abar hilēnd. Vd 6.2
 

3.1.3.1. The exhortative proclitic particle

The particle ē/ ēv (< *ai̯u̯a, Av. aēva, Parth. hēb) followed by the finite verb of the present yields an analytic form of the optative present. However, the third person singular of b-, bav-/ būdan may take the subjunctive ending °ād or the optative ending °ē(h).
ēv nihed ‘let (him) place’ from nih-/ nihādan ‘to put’,
pāy ped ēn darg ēv nihed. Š H
ēv vihēzed ‘may he travel’.
šāhān šāh ped kirbagīh az Armen ōrōn ō Ērānšahr ēv vihēzed. N P 18
ē handāzed ‘may you cast’.
rāstnigerišnīh ē handāzed ped hān ī dānāg cašm. ŠGV 11.1-2
ē bavād ‘let it be’.
ā-mān kār ud dādestān ē bavād. Y 65.7
vīrāyā-m gām pet šavān; u-m mā ēv bavād pādixšā pediš drōzan. Ps 118.133
ēv bēh ‘let it be’’.
kē ēn nāmag wēnād ud pehipursād ān ped yazdān ud xvadāyān ud xvēš ruvān rād ud rāst ēv bē(h). KNRb 13-15
(mā) ēv nišīyum ‘let me (not) stay’.
an ped Elefantineh mā ē nišīyam. PGMII 1
ē baved! ‘may you be’.
az gōhr ped rāmišn ē baved. PDoc 22
 

3.1.4. Imperative

Sg. 2
bar ‘carry!’ (cf. Skt. bhara),
harv tis-ē xrīn ud andar xānag bar ! HAM 143
purs ‘ask!’ (Av. pǝrǝsā, OPers. pṛsā),
axt ī jādūg guft kū: «purs dā vizārum!» MJF iv
āxēz ‘rise up!’ from ā-xēz-/ āxistan ‘to stand up, rise’.
āxēz pus ī man! HAM 1
Pl. 2
bared! ‘carry!’ (Av. barata),
cōn ka ēn gyān az tan ī man judāg bed ēn taxt ī man abar dāred ud ped haspānvar bared ud ped haspānvar bē nihed, ud ped sar ī gēhānīgān vāng kuned … HHK
hiled! ‘leave!’.
tan rāy āzarm ī ruvān bē mā hiled! CHP 56
 

3.1.5. The present continuous

If the adverb hamēv/ hamē be added to the present verb form, it becomes a verbal particle, and yields a present continuous form.
kē ast kōr bē agar bannag ī man? kē karrag bē frēstag ī hamē brihēnum ? SGV 14.21-22
 
 

3.2. Periphrastic verb forms

Periphrastic tenses may be built on the basis of the past stem (past participle form) with auxiliary verbs such as h- ‘to be’, b-, bav-/ būdan ‘to be, become’, ēst-/ ēstādan ‘to be, stand’. As for the periphrastic conjugation, intransitive and transitive verbs are construed differently.
 

3.2.1. The past simple

The past tense is formed by the help of the past stem plus the personal forms of the auxiliary h- in different moods, indicative, subjunctive, or optative.
 

3.2.1.1. Intransitive

Indicative:
(an) mad hum ‘I came’, šud hum ‘I went’.
az kū mad hum, ud abāz ō kū šavum? CHP 1
bē ō zreh šud hum. RP 18f.13
(tū) nišast hē ‘you sat down’ (nišīy-/ nišastan ‘to sit’).
tū nišast hē u-t yazišn ī yazdān kird. MX 2.131
(ōy) šud ‘he/ she went’.
ō vidār ī šagrān šud, ud ped vidār ī šagrān bē nišast. HKR 118
(amāh) nišast hem ‘we sat down’.
abar rōdestān ī Bābil, ānōh nišast hem, u-m griyīd –ka-mān āyād būd Cehyūn. Ps 136.1
(ašmāh) raft hed ‘you walked’, (bē) vidurd hed ‘you passed (away).
ped yazdān pand raft hed. TM 542b
az gētīg bē vidurd hed. HDM 14
(avēšān) āmad hend ‘they came’, šud hend ‘they went’.
Spitōg ud Arzrāsp ud abārīg ī az bē Xvanirah ped dēn-pursišnīh ō Frašōštar āmad hend. Dk iv, M 411-412
ēdōn cōn vād ī ardā hamē šud hend. KAP 4.15
Subjunctive:
būd hād ‘it (he) may have become’,
harv kē ēn mizdagtāzī az man pedīrift hād ud ō ēn āfrāh ud kirbag kirdagān ī-m-iš nizist hunsand būd hād. TM 801a
pedyārag ēdōn stahmagdar būd hād kū ristāxēz ud tan ī pasēn kirdan nē šāyist hād. MX 2.95
šud hād ‘it may have gone’.
ka kas hān druz bē dīd hād vēnišn ī cašm bē šud hād. Bd 55
Optative:
būd hēm ‘I would have been’, būd hē ‘it would have been’,
raft hēm ‘I would have walked’,
tarsīd hē ‘he would have been frightened’
 
 

3.2.1.2. Transitive

In sentences with transitive verbs, the agent (subject) may be represented by the full or enclitic oblique case of the personal pronoun, the patient (direct object) is considered as the grammatical subject and may be expressed in direct case of the personal pronoun.
 

I. The agential construction

It is of ergative type. The patient determines verbal concord.
Kayhōsrō mardōm ī ēr andar bē nišāst hend. ‘Therein Kavi Haosravah settled Aryan people.’ RP 49.5.
Kayhōsrō : agent
mardōm ī ēr : patient, plural, patient determines the auxiliary.
amāh tū dīd hē. ‘we saw you’.
amāh : agent
tū : patient, direct case.
 
tō an dīd hum. ‘you saw me’.
tō : agent, oblique case
an : patient, direct case.
 
tō ka ped gētīg dīd kē dēvīzagīh kird. MX 2.131
tō : agent, oblique case
kē : patient
 
ēg tū nišast hē u-t yazišn ī yazdān kird. MX 2.131
-t : agent, enclitic pronoun
yazišn ī yazdān : patient
 
gōbed kū-š mardōm āzādkām dād hend. ‘It says: He has created people with free will.’ ŠGV 15.78.
-š : agent, enclitic pronoun
mardōm : patient, plural
 
dēn īg man vizīd ‘the religion that I have chosen’. TM 5794
man : agent, oblique case
dēn : patient
 
u-t ōy varm kird? ‘and did you learn it by heart?’ J 13
-t : agent, enclitic pronoun
ōy : patient
 
ānōh kas nē būd kē vāz dād hē. ‘Over there, there was no one to administer the Vāz’. MGA 0
kas : agent
vāz : patient
 
dēvān rāz bē dānist hād. ‘the Daēva would have known the secret’. Bd 56
dēvān : agent
rāz : patient
 
Gennāg Mēnōg hān xvadāyīh bē ō Xēšm dād hē . ‘the Evil Spirit would have given that dominion unto Aēšma.’ MX 27.35
Gennāg mēnōg : agent
hān xvadāyīh : patient
 
u-mān huzīvišnīh vēš dīd hē. ‘and we would have seen more of well-being’. Dk vi, M 540
-mān : agent, enclitic pronoun
huzīvišnīh : patient
 
 
  • Sometimes the patient is not mentioned –the sentence with “hidden” patient.
u-m handarzēnīd hē. ‘I have admonished you (sg.)’. MX 2.196
-m : agent, enclitic pronoun
[tū] : hidden patient, pronoun in direct case
 
u-t nēktar bē kird hum. ‘and you made [me] more beautiful’. Hn II.14
-t : agent, enclitic pronoun
[an] : hidden patient, pronoun in direct case
 
u-šān xvard. ‘and they ate [it]’. ŠGV 13.143
-šān : agent, enclitic pronoun
?? [hān, ōy] : hidden patient
 
u-š dād hend. ‘and he created [them]?’ J 12
-š : agent, enclitic pronoun
[avēšān, avīn, hānēšān] : hidden patient
 
kāmag ēn kū-m kāc mā kird hē. ‘his desire is this that: Would that I had not done [it]!’ Dk vi, M 476.
-m : agent, enclitic pronoun
[hān] : hidden patient
 
 

II. non-agential

It is of passive type.
ō frahangestān dād hum. ‘I was given to the school’. HKR 8
avēšān dād hend. ‘they have been created’. MX 27.6
 
 

3.2.2. The past continuous

If the adverb hamēv/ hamē be added to the past verb form, it becomes a verbal particle (imperfective prefix), and yields a past continuous (progressive) form:
u-šān āb hamē dād. ‘they were irrigating’. Dk vi, M 569-570
ōy ped šnūg ud ārešn hamē raft. ‘he was walking with knees and elbows’. RP 31a.2-3
 
 

3.2.3. The past imperfect

The past imperfect is built by using the past stem followed by the personal forms of the imperfect stem ānā- (the imperfect of h/ ah ‘to be’).
hān dēsvēs ī-šān peymuxt ānād. ‘that garment which they had been putting’. TM 7982 R i
u-šān xvēš zahag ud hannām ō ōy dād ānānd. ‘and they had been giving their own progeny and limbs to it’. TBT IV 499-503
 
 

3.2.4. The present perfect

The present perfect is built by using the past stem followed by the finite forms of the auxiliary ēst- in different moods. It follows the same rule as in the past simple.
an āmad ēstum. ‘I have come’. KAP 8.7
vālīd ēstē [kū: frabih kird ēstē] ‘you have grown [i.e., (he) have made you corpulent]’. F 3.8.
xvaddōšag ka ō frazām ī kār mad ēsted. ‘a narcissistic perverse, when he has come to the end of the life’. AV 158.
ašmā vehān kē ēdar mad ēsted. ‘you, the good ones, who have come here’. ĀfM 3
u-mān ped hān ī xvēš tan bē pēdāgēnīd ēsted. ‘we have indicated [it] on our body’. MGA 7
u-m kāc diz-ē kird ēstē. ‘would that I had built a fortress’. Dk vi, M 540
dānāgān guft ēsted kū … ‘the wise have said [this] that …’ VC 37
guft ēsted kū … ‘[it] has been said that …’ CHP 42
nibišt ēsted. ‘[it] has been written’. ŠKZ 27
imrōz ka gētīgān hišt ēsted ‘today, when [you] have been left in this world’. HDM 3
 
 

3.2.4.1. A special passive form of the present perfect

It is a combination of the past stem and the present perfect of b-/ bav-/ būdan.
ēn gētīg dād būd ēsted ‘this world has been created’. ŠGV 8.33
 
 

3.2.5. The past perfect

It may be formed by the help of the past stem plus the past simple of the auxiliary ēst-.
abestāg ud zand cōn abēzagīhā andar āmad ēstād. ‘the Avesta-Zand which had survived’. Dk iv, M 412
abar haft pahlumīh ī ō Vištāsp šāh mad ēstād hend. ‘about the seven superior qualities that had appeared to the king Vīštāspa’. Dk iii, M 366.
ēn hamāg ōy az kār abāz dāšt ēstād hend. ‘he had made all these ineffective’. J 4
u-m zand niyūšīd ēstād. ‘and I had studied the Exegesis’. HKR 9
harv ēvēnag peristišn hān kenīzag kird ēstād. ‘that maid had performed any kind of service’. KAP 3.1
u-š hagriz rōšnīh nē dīd ēstād. ‘and he had never seen the light’. ŠGV 13.87
u-šān yazišn kird ēstād. ‘and they had performed the Yasna-ceremony’. MJF II
garōdmān dād ēstād. ‘Paradise had been created’. Dk iii, M 19
ped fravardag ōn nibišt estād kū … ‘in the letter [it] had been written thus …’. VC 3.
 
 

3.2.6. The perfect anterior

It is a combination of the past stem and the preterit of the verb b-, bav-/ būdan.
hān zan andar dārišn aviš mad būd. ‘that woman had come under his guardianship’. AVN 68.12
ka-š hān vāxt būd draxt asurīg. ‘when he, the Assyrian tree, had said that’. DA 28.
ka-š xvadāyīh ī xvēš pēdāg kird būd. ‘when he had made manifest his lordship’. J 3
tan dād būd. ‘the body had been created’. Bd 129
 
 

3.2.7. The past perfect anterior

It is a combination of the past perfect and the preterit of the verb b-, bav-/ būdan.
ōy kē-š andar sālārīh mad ēstād būd ‘the one who had already come under his guardianship’. AVN 89.4
 
 

3.2.8. The periphrastic passive

It consists of a combination of the past participle and an inflectional form of the auxiliary b-, bav-/ būdan.
 

I.

past participle plus present of bav-/ būdan
ka ēd az man kirdagān šnūd baved ‘when these deeds of mine will be heard’. DA 31
ēg-išān framān ī Ahrmen kird baved ‘then the command of Aŋra Mainyu is executed by them’. MGA 3
āfrīd bēh yazd rōšn zōr ud vehīh ‘blessed be God, Light, Power and Goodness (Wisdom)’. TM 36
škast ud zad bād Ahrmen ‘may Aŋra Mainyu be broken and smitten’. Nīrang ī šnōšag
zad ud škast ud vānīd bād dušmen ī Ērānšahr ‘may be smashed and defeated and vanquished the enemies of Ērānšahr (Persia).’ ĀfM
stūd bavānd spasagān ‘let the servants (bishops) be praised’. TM 11
 

II.

past participle and ēstād plus present of bav-/ būdan
mardōm andar kāmagzīvišnīh dāšt ēstād bavend ‘people shall be kept in freedom’. J 15
 
 

§ 4. Nominal forms of verbs

4.1. The present stem as the base form of the verb

4.1.1. A participle with verbal character

It is formed by adding -ān to the present stem. It can be traced back to the present middle, athematic participle *-āna-. The ān-participle can function as a finite verbal form.
gōbān ‘saying’ from gōb-/ guftan ‘to say, speak’:
pedisā-m brādarīn u-m dōstān, gōbān: tō rāy drūd! ‘for the sake of my brothers and friends [I am] saying: peace be to you!’ Ps 121.8
viderān ‘passing, crossing; dying’ from vider-, vidar-/ vidaštan, vidurdan ‘to pass, traverse’:
fradāg rōz anērān ō deh ī X viderān ēsted ‘tomorrow on the day of Anērān he will traverse the district of X’. PB(erlin) 1
ka hamzamān viderān baved ‘when he dies at the same time’. RP 62.11
haspān ‘reposing’ from haspīdan (< *hah-p-ai̯a-), visān ‘settling down’ from vis-/ vistan ‘to settle down’ (Av. vis, visa- pres.):
xvarxšēd ud māh ud yazdān haspān ud visān bavānd ‘the sun, the moon, and the Yazata will be at rest and (well-) established’. TM 7984 I.
ka ravān ayāb tazān ayāb ēstān [āxēzān] ayāb nišīyān ayāb nibayān ayāb barān ayāb vāzān ka ebyāst [kū: šabīg kustīg dāred] <ēdōn> radīhā ‘when one is going or running or standing [rising] or sitting down or lying down or riding (a horse) or driving (a chariot), if girded [i.e. he has put the sacred shirt and the girdle], then he (acts) in an authorized manner’. N 37
 
 

4.1.1.1.

The verb nivinn-/ nivistan ‘to begin’ (< *ni-band-a-) is often accompanied by a present participle in -ān.
hān ī ka-šān nivinned sardāg aziš frōd višāhān. ‘when the cold begins to be dispersed from it.’ (višāh-, višāy-/ višādan ‘to open, release’). TM 7981 II
ēg-um nivist ō pidar ud avestvārān gōvān ud nizēhān ‘I then began to speak to and teach [my] father and the elders [of the family]’. TM 49 II.
u-š nivist andar šahr vināh kunān ‘and [the monster] began to do damage in the world’. TM 7981 I.
frōd ō zamīg āmad hend, ud nivist hend abar zamīg xezān ‘they came down to the earth, and they began to creep on the earth’. TM 7981 I.
nūn harv ce ēn zan kird ud virāst, man-z hāmgōnag niyābag kirdan. ud ōy-iz zan nivist hāmrāst virāyān ‘now all that this woman has done and arranged, I should do also in the same manner. And also that woman began in just the same way to arrange’. TM 45.
 
It may be accompanied by an infinitive as well:
dibīr kē-š nivist nibištan ‘the scribe who began to write …’. TM 1.
 
 

4.1.2. A participle with nominal character

It is formed by adding -andag/ -endag to the present stem (-andag < *-ant- the suffix of present active participle enlarged by the suffix -a-ka-).
dahendag/ dayendag ‘giving’, an epithet of constellations < *dadant-a-ka- (Av. daδaṇt-, °daθaṇt-).
dūrkunendag ast <ī Gennāg Mēnōg purmarg>, an Ardvahišt [amehrspend] kē bahr-dahendag ast [an Ardvahišt amehrspend] druz jask druz jask ī meh-āzārdar bē zaned. Yt 3.14
sōzendag ‘burning’ < *sau̯cant-a-ka- (Av. saociṇt-).
kē peristend ādur sōzendag. TM 28 I
šāyendag ‘being able to; competent, capable; meritorious, worthy’ (Av. xšayaṇt-).
zan ud mard ī juvān ī šāyendag. SS 17
šāyendag ka ō ašāyendagīh rased. AV 158
vaxšendag ‘growing; kindling, blazing’ < *u̯axš-ant-a-ka- (Av. uz-uxšyaṇt-).
ōy ī gētīgārāy ud mēnōgvišōb mard, andar pādifrāh ī stwš ēdōn tabāhīhed cōn ātaš ī vaxšendag ka-š āb abar rased. MX 21.10
ped ādur vaxšendag. TM 774
zīvandag/ zīndag ‘living, alive’ < *jīu̯-ant-a-ka- (Av. jvaṇt-, Parth. žīvandag).
pōst ī mardōm ī zīndag. F 3.2
gōbišn īg grīv zīndag. TM 95
 
  • Some -endag forms only appear as substantives.
vāyendag ‘bird’ (lit. ‘flying’) < *u̯ādai̯antaka-.
cē rāy ka gāvān ud gōspendān ud murvān ud vāyendagān ud māhīgān ēk ēk ped hān ī xvēš dānišn sazāgīhā dānišnumand hend? MX 13.2
 
  • A number of “old” active participles remain without the -ka- extension.
abaxšāyend ‘merciful, forgiving’ < *apaxšād-ant-a-.
agar xvābar, kirbakkar, ud abaxšāyend, ēgiš Ahrmen ud dēv ud dušox ēn hamāg vad ud drōšag ped xvēš xvābarīh ud kirbakkarīh ud abaxšāyendīh ō xvēš dāmān cim abgand? ŠGV 11.8
frasāvand/ frasāyand ‘transitory, transient’ from fra-sāy-/ frasūdan ‘to rub, wear’ < *su, *sāu̯ai̯a-.
ōšumand tan ud frasāvand xīr. Dk ix, M 803
frasāvandīh ī xīr ī gētīg. VAM 77
tanand ‘spider’ from tan- ‘to spin (out), weave’ (Av. tan, °tanu- pres., us-tāna- verbal adj. ‘stretched out’).
snixr ud tagarg ud tanand ud mēg. Bd 207
 
 

4.1.3.

The nominal form with the agentive suffix -āg < *āka- < *āh-ka-
dānāg ‘knowing, wise’ < *zānāka-.
ped Hrōm fīlāsōfā, ud ped Hindūgān dānāg, ud ped abārīg gyāg šnāsag. Dk iv, M 429
gīrāg ‘who is capable of grabbing; taking’ < *gṛbāka-.
cahār zōr ī frabihišngar, ī ast zōr ī āhanzāg, gīrāg, gugārāg, ud spōzāg. ŠGV 8.61
gōbāg ‘endowed with speech; eloquent; rational’ < *gau̯bāka-.
Gayōmard, ī vizārīhed nām abar ōy ī mard ī fradum nāmcišt, ī ast «zīvāg ī gōbāg ī mīrāg». vīmand ī-š nāmcišt cōn ēn si vāzag, ī ast «zīndag» (zīvāg) ud «gōbāg» ud «mīrāg», vīmand do ī ast «zīndag» ud «gōbāg» ped āfurišn ī az pid dādār, ud ēk ī ast «mīrāg» abarrasišnīg az ebgad. Dk iii, M 73
kunāg ‘doing, making; agent’ < *kunāka-.
kunišn bē az kunāg būdan ōn nē šāyed būdan cōn ēc gadišn bē az gōhr. ŠGV 8.126
mānāg ‘resembling, similar to’,
mānāg dar ī vēnīg hombōyāg cōn pīl. TM 2 I
humānāg ‘id.’ < *hu-mānai̯āka-.
ēn catrang ped cim kārezār humānāg kird. VC 9
varzāg ‘ploughing’ < *vṛz(a)i̯āka-.
gāv-ē varzāg arz cand? MJF 4
vēnāg ‘seeing; clear-sighted; visible’ < *u̯aināka-.
mard ī vēnāg ī frazānag. Dk vii, M 655
kē cašm abēr vēnāg. HDV
zāmāg ‘leader, guide’ < *jāmāka-.
u-mān zāmāg ō hān šādī ud zīhr ī farroxān. TM 36
zīvāg/ zīyāg ‘living’ < *jīu̯āka-.
zīvāg ī gōbāg ī mīrāg. Dk iii, M 73
 
 

4.1.4. Nominal forms in -išn < *-šna< *-θna

4.1.4.1.

If the suffix -išn (more seldom -išt) be added to a presnt stem, it denotes an action or state (gerund).
āvarišn ‘bringing’ < *ā-bara-šna-.
vēn āvarišn barišn. Bd 189
barišn ‘bearing, offering; behaviour’ < *bara-šna- (Paz. barašni)
mardōm ud abārīg dām vinārišn ud barišn ud abzāyišn ud vaxšišn. ŠGV 4.20
hu-barišn ‘well-behaved’
ēk abāg did ped dōšārmīh ud dādestān ud hubarišnīh zīved ud rāyēned. J 4
bavišn ‘the becoming; generation’ < *bau̯a-šna-.
bavišn ud vināhišn. Dk iv, M 420
bavišn-ravišnīh … bavišn-ēstišnīh. Dk iii, M 350
dahišn ‘the giving; creation’ < *daθa-šna-.
a-š az hān stānišn ud ō hān dahišn. Y 65.6
dēbišn ‘anger, wrath’ < *dai̯pa-šna-.
cōn-um sōgand xvard ped dēbišn: nē-m šavēnd ō visān.  Ps 95.11
gōbišn ‘the saying; speech, word, discourse; treatise’ < *gau̯ba-šna-.
gōbišn kār nēst. MHD 54
gōbišn abar āstvand. TM 98 I
jahišn ‘the happening; accident; chance’ < *zgaθa-šna-.
dā jahišn ped kār veh baved. ŠnŠ 19.10
peristišn ‘worship, service’ < *pari-šta-šna-.
peristišn ud bannagīh. J 4
eškennišn ‘breaking’ < *skanda-šna-.
ka drōn nān-ē, ah frasast rāy, u-š bē nē škennišn. RP 58.5
vardišn/ gardišn ‘act of turning; turn; revolution’ < *u̯arta-šna-.
vardišn ī axtarān. VC 22 
              tēzdar az dastān vardišn. Dk ix, M 815 
              ēd rāy ce niyūšāgān az ardāvān kamb hend, hān-šān az ēd kird andum ped vardišn abērāz baved. TM 8251 II
zīvišn/ zīšn ‘the living; livelihood, subsistence; meal’ < *jīu̯a-šna-.
dā-tān an zīvišn ī gētīg ped meyān kunum. CHP 49
                harv kū vindānd, agar ped vahāg, agar ped zīšn, ud agar ped dāšn, hēb xvarend. TM 5794 II
 
The suffix -išt is sporadically attested:
mānišn ‘dwelling, sojourn’, also māništ.
gyān … u-š māništ andar dil. VZ 29.4
 
 

4.1.4.2.

The Stem.present-išn form could be used as the participle of necessity.
 
cōn-mān bast ēsted kustīg meyān tan, ped dil, kadag ī menišn, ōn-mān bastag dārišn menišn az harvisp vināh ‘as we bind the sacred girdle over the middle of the body, over the heart that is the abode of thought, so ought we to keep the mind closed from all sins’. CK 63.
mardōmān ped ēn si rāh saxt ēstišn ‘on these three paths men should stand firm’. CHP 28.
andar xānag-ē ka tan-ē bē mīred dā si šab bavandag baved ped hān ī nāmagānīh tis-iz gōšt ō drōn nē nihišn, bē ēn cōn šīr ud panīr ud mēvag ud xāyag ud rēcār ōh nihišn, peyvannān ī ōy tis-iz gōšt nē xvarišn ‘In a house when a person dies, until three nights are completed, nothing whatever of meat is to be placed on the [table of] Drōn for the commemoration of the name [of the deceased], but these things like milk and cheese and fruits and eggs and confection are to be so placed; nothing whatever of meat is to be eaten by his (/ her) relatives.’ ŠnŠ 17.2.
 
 

4.1.5. A present stem tends to have a nominal aspect:

I.

It could be the second member of a compound.
axtar-mār/ axtar-āmār ‘astrologer’ (āmār- ‘to reckon, calculate’).
hangārag ī axtarmārān. DD 68
peygām-bar ‘messenger’ (bar-/ burdan ‘to carry, bear’).
dēnnimūdār ud rāst peygāmbar. Bd 218
                  zand peygāmbar ī jādūgān. Y 61.3
                peygāmbarān āvišt. Dk iii, M 29; (Arab. خاتم النّبيين )
rāst-cāš ‘who is true to the teaching’ (cāš-/ cāštan ‘to teach’).
dādvar ī rāstcāš, Dk iii, M 109 - opp. dādvar ī drōcāš.
rist-āxēz ‘resurrection of the dead’ (āxēz-/ āxistan ‘to rise’).
ristāxēz ud tan ī pasēn kirdan. MX 2.95
uzdēs-perist ‘idol-worshipper’ (peristīdan ‘to serve, worship’),
uzdēsperistān ī andar kišvar. MX 2.95
abdāb-perist ‘sun-worshipper’, bot. ‘Calendula officinalis’.
vad-ešnās ‘ill-informed’ (šnās-/ šnāxtan ‘to know’).
adān ud vadešnās. ŠGV 13.110
 

II.

It may take the suffix -ag < *-aka.
bannag ‘servant (boy), bondsman, subject’ (OPers. bandaka-).
bannag, Dk viii, M 708 opp. mard ī šahr.
           bannag ud peristār. XvR I
peristag ‘worshipper, servant; temple’.
peristag ī bay ī bayān. DE 3
peristagān tarsagāh. ĀfM
peyrāyag ‘ornament, embellishment’.
frahang andar frāxīh peyrāyag. VAM 66
šnāsag ‘knowing one; sense organ’.
gōbišn ī hangām šnāsagān. Dk iv, M 428
              cašmān ud abārīg šnāsagān. VZ 29.6
vēnag ‘watchman’ (vēn-/ dīdan ‘to see, watch’).
xvadāvan abāz ō ēv kustag īg vēnag nišast. TM 3
 
 

4.2. The past stem as the base form of the verb

4.2.1.

The past stem also serves as a verbal adjective (old passive past participle) or a patient noun. It is often enlarged by the suffix -ag < *-aka.
bast ‘bound, closed; tied’ < *basta-.
In a compound:
bast-āz ‘he who has bound cupidity’,
bastāzīh. Dk iii, M 135
bast-vāng ‘tongue-tied, mute’.
bastvāngīh. Dk iii, M 201
bastag ‘bound, closed; tied; imprisoned’ (Bactr. βασταγο).
Mānī yazdān ped tan mehmān nē baved bē andar tan bastag ast davist. Dk iii, M 218
bastag būd hem, u-tān višād hem. TM 475
 
burd ‘brought, carried; patient’ < *bṛta-.  
              pādixšāy ī vyāxan ī burd. HOD 17
In a compound:
vād-burd ‘carried by wind’,
            vātō.bǝrǝtō: hān ī vādburd. Vd 5.3
              vād-burdag ‘brought by the wind’,
 zūr-burd ‘brought by deceit’,
              zurō.bǝrǝtå avarǝtå: zūrburd xvāstag. F 20
burd-ranz ‘toiler’.
            burdranzān ud pāsbānān. TM 82
burdag ‘brought; stolen; patient’.
burdag ud truftag, burdagīh ud truftagīh. Dk iii, M 407
 
dād ‘given, created; gift; transfer’ < *dāta-.
          būdān [hān ī dād ud murd]. Y 65.5
In a compound:
          dād-stad ‘give and take; deal, trade’,.
dād stad. Dk viii, M 699
dēv-dād ‘established by the Daēva’ (Av. daēvō.dāta-).
                zimestān-z ī dēvāndād. Vd 1.2
dādag ‘given, produced’.
                  kē ped šūy nē dādag kenīg, F 2.6
                  āfrīdag ud dādag. ŠGV 11.258
 
kird ‘done, made; practice; fact’
          kird ud kunišn. J 16
          ped kird nihād ‘(to) put into practice’. Bd 216
In a compound:
kird-hērbedestān ‘who has frequented the religious school’,
                  kirdhērbedestān ud abzārumand. Dk vi, M 569
dahmān-kird ‘made by the initiate’ (Av. dahmō.kǝrǝta-).
                  harvispīn aburnāyagān dahmānkirdān ī ahlavān fravahr yazem. Y 26.9
                  dahmānkird [kū: az vehān zād ēsted]. Vd 13.23
kirdag ‘made; practice, usage; text’.
šōyišn ī barešnūm az kirdag bē nē hiled. NM 1.4.1
cāštag ud kirdag ī hāvištān ī Ādurbād. Dk iii, M 219
 
yašt ‘consecrated; ceremony; the sacrificial text’ < *yašta-.
          yašt ī āb srūd gāhān. MJF post.
In a compound:
yašt-fravahr ‘whose pre-soul is consecrated’, an epithet of Zaraθuštra,
               az yaštfravahr Zardušt cāšišn. Dk viii, M 679
an-yašt ‘unconsecrated’.
                   anyašt nē xvardan. Dk ix, M 798
yaštag ‘consecrated’.
haft ādur yaštag ī hubōyāg (huβōδāg). TM 95
 
zād ‘born; birth’ < *zāta-.
                 zādān [hān ī nūn-z ast] ud azādān. Y 65.6
In a compound:
zād-murd (Parth.) ‘metempsychosis’,
                   mōxš vindāh až im zādmurd, ud až visp bazag bōxsāh. TM 5815 I
naxv-zād/ nox-zād ‘first-born’.
                  (Parth.) zādag hed cē žīrīft abarēn ud noxzādān cē rōz espurrīg. TM 763
zādag ‘born; infant’.
                  dibīrān nēvān, bān zādagān, mirdān tahmān, frēstagān ī vāxš. TM 36
               xvad gumānīg hum kū rūspīg-zādag hē. DA 29
 
 

4.2.2.

A few derived nouns have the Stem.past-išn form.
āmadišn ‘the coming’ (besides āyišn).
            āmadišn īg frēstag ped šahrān. TM 2 I
āyišn ud šavišn ī vēn. F 3.4
bastišn ‘the binding; obstruction’ (besides bannišn)
             bastišn vēnišn ī cašm. CHP 47
andar ēvgōhrīh āmēzišn ud pesāzišn ud bannišn būdan ōn nē šāyed cōn asēm ī pāk. TM 9 II
bōxtišn ‘salvation, being saved’ (besides būzišn).
            bōxtišn ī az dogānag bīm. Dk iv, M 419
dārišn ī tan ud būzišn ī ruvān. MX 2.198
dīdišn ‘the seeing, sight; aspect’ (besides vēnišn)
            mānāg dar ī cašmān, kē ped dīdišn īg tuhīg vīfsed. TM 2 I
vēnišn ī dōstān. HOD 31
hamuxtišn ‘the learning’ (besides hamōzišn).
          an ēd ī tō hamuxtišn dōšam Ohrmazd. Y 46.3
hamōzišn ī xrad. HHK 12
 
 

4.2.3. Nominal forms in Stem.past-ār < *-ar, *-āram

4.2.3.1.

It forms agent nouns and, secondarily, adjectives.
bastār ‘binder; who takes prisoner’.
                 bastār ī duz. Dk viii, M 722
dādār ‘giver; creator’,
               kirdār ud dādār, Dk iii, M 218
                 dādār Ohrmazd. M 340
āsānīh-dādār ‘who establishes peace/ tranquility’.
                 ēn-z kū: āsānīhdādār būd Jim [kū-š tis hān kird ī mardōmān āsānīh aziš būd] kāmagdādār [kū-š nēkīh ped dād]. Dk ix, M 810
guftār ‘teller, narrator’,
             mā ō nihangmāyagīh ī guftār ud pesāxtār, bē ō vazurgīh ud rāstīh ud vābarīgānīh ud vimandgōbišnīh ī pēšēnīg dānāgān ē nigered. ŠGV 1.43
pur-guftār ‘with numerous texts’ (Av. pouru.vacąm).
                purguftār ī rāstguftār ī ahlav Tōsar. Dk vii, M 652
kirdār ‘maker, agent, factor; active’,
               kirdār bed cōn Ohrmazd xvadāy ped dāmān ī xvēš. ĀfM
                 kirdār, dāštār, āfrīdār. ŠGV 11.257
               andar gēhān kirdārdum būd. RP 31a.1
    nēk-kirdār ‘benefactor, good agent’,
                 az nēkīh ud vattarīh ī andar gēhān pēdāg, ud nāmcišt ī nēkkirdār ī xvēš vimand. ŠGV 8.2-3
vārān-kirdār ‘rain-maker’.
                  Tištar ud Vād vārānkirdārān. Bd 58
madār ‘who comes, comer’,
               dā ō cinvad puhl ī buland ī sahmgen (šaved) kē harv ahlav ud durvand aviš madār. MX 2.115
     pas-madār ‘after-comer’.
                  ō var gāh šud, cand pād ī pēšmadār pasmadār rāy zamān kard. Dk viii, M 707
yaštār ‘celebrator, celebrant’.
                ped dēn āstavān būdan, pediš varzīdār ud yaštār, ud aziš avardāg būdan. CHP 4
zadār ‘smiter; destructive; hostile’’.
              zadār ud ōzadār. MGA 1
              pādixšāy ī nāzūk ī zadār. AV 156
               zanišn ō zadār, hān ī veh tarsagāh ō ōy ī veh. Y 43.5
 
 
 

4.2.3.2.

Some nominal forms in -ār have passive meaning (patient noun).
griftār ‘taken; captive; tangible’.
vēnāg ud griftār. Bd 194
               ped dād ī dēvān griftār nē bavē. MX 2.40
a-griftār ‘intangible, inapprehensible’.
                dām amēnīdār ud aravāg ud agriftār būd. Bd 238
 
 

4.2.3.3.

Some nominal forms in -ār are in fact the nouns of action.
dīdār ‘vision, sight’.
ātašīg rōšnīh ī xvēš ped cašmān ō dīdār āvarīhed. VZ 30.23
 
 

4.2.4. Infinitives

The infinitive may serve as a verbal noun and or an abstract noun. It also occurs in a nominal group.

4.2.4.1.

Two nominal forms can be called infinitives:
One form is identical with the past stem (in origin, the dative case of a verbal adjective in °ta):
 
drust āmad hē tū, Ardā Vīrāz, ka-t ahanūn-z āmad zamān nē būd! ‘Be welcome, O Ardā Vīrāz, even if it was not yet the time for you to come! AVN 4.1.
hān drahm abāz dād nē šāyed ‘it is not possible to give back (return) that money’. MHD 109.4.
grift kāmist ‘he wished to seize’.
nibišt cimīg ‘it is logical to write’. Dk vii, M 591.
ā-m brihēnīd tuvān būd ‘then I could create (it)’. VZ 34.6.
 
Another form comes from the old °tanai̯ form (dative singular of an action noun in °tan) and is derived from the past stem plus °an:
burdan ‘to bear, carry’ (OPers. bartanaiy)
                    burdan ud ušmurdan ī hān ī Ohrmazd dād. Dk ix, M 870
guftan ‘to say, speak’ < *gau̯btanai̯.
                      peyvāzag guftan. HKR 13
                     harv cē vehdar dāned guftan gōbed. SS 19
kandan ‘to dig (up)’ (OPers. kantanaiy)
                      az ēn soxan šāyed dānistan kū ast draxt ī pidar nē kišt, kandan ud abgandan abāyed. ŠGV 15.145
kirdan ‘to do, make’ (OPers. cartanaiy, Bactr. κιρδανο, cf. πορδο-γιρδανο)
                        kirbag ped kirdan dāred! HDM 20
nibištan ‘to write down, inscribe’ (OPers. nipaištanaiy).
              dibīr kē-š nivist nibištan ped framān ī dēnsarhangān, u-š nē tuvān būd hanzaftan nibištan.
nihādan ‘to put’ < * niδātanai̯
kašīdan ī abar āb pādixšā, stadan ud nihādan nē pādixšā. ŠnŠ 2.87
ka drōn yazend, harv tan-ē rāy kē vāz gīred spram dotāg ped drōn nihādan, harv kē vāz gīred spram dotāg cāšnīg aviš nihādan. RP 56.8
 
 

4.2.4.2.

An infinitive may be used as a verbal predicate or an impersonal verbal form expressing obligation or necessity.
 
druz-dādestān mard xvadāyīh ud xvāstag rāy nē burzīdan ‘one should not honour a deceitful man because of his mastery and wealth’. Dk vi, M 476.
abāg hān ī … azabar nibišt nigerīdan ‘ [one ought] to examine [this] together with that which has been written above.’ MHD 9.
zamīg kišvzār kirdan ud varzīdan ‘[one has] to make land arable and to cultivate it’. CHP 6.
 

4.2.4.3.

An infinitive may be used as a "complementary infinitive", and it may also accompany an impersonal construction.
 
āb-iz ī šāyed kirdan az pas xvārdan. ‘and also to drink the water of “it can be done” thereafter’. DH.
ped nērōg ī xrad šāyed xvāstan ‘it is possible to solicit [it] through the power of wisdom’. MX 57.10.
az ēn do tis vēš sazed handēšīdan: ēk az vināh, ud didīgar (az) vattarān ‘it is more proper to worry about these two things: one, sin; the other, the wicked’. HOD 18
ēn kārezār ud xūnrēzišnīh bē abāyed hištan ud xvad az ēn ranz ī āvām āsān kirdan ‘one ought to abandon this battle and bloodshed, and to relieve oneself from the trouble of the period’. KAP 12.2.
ōy ī dušāgāh ud vadxēm mard ka vas-iz ō burzišn ud tuvāngarīh ud pādixšāyīh rased, pas-iz ped hān nēkīh ud pādixšāyīh burzīdan nē abāyed ‘the ignorant and ill-natured man, even when he attains to much honour, opulence, and authority, even then one must not honour him because of that welfare and authorithy’. MX 57.32.
hān kē tan abēbīmīhādar ud avināhdar ud aranzagīhādar dāned rāyēnīdan ‘that which can arrange (/ knows how to direct) the person more fearless, more sinless, and more painless’. AV 60.
kē vistāxīh abāg ruvān ī xvēš kāmed kirdan gōb kū harv kas dōst bāš, xōg vad mā kun! ‘he who wants to have confidence in his own soul, tell him: Be a [true] friend to every person, do not be ill-natured!’. HOD 53
kāmend harv tis dānistan ud ezvārdan ‘they intend to know and comprehend anything’. TM 97.
ka-š raftan kāmist ‘when he desired to go’. ŠGV 14.50.
harv kār ī xvāhē kirdan ‘anything you want to do’. HAM 136.
framāyed pursīdan kū ‘he deigns to ask’. HKR 23.
ped kōf-ē ul vurraved šudan ‘he would like to climb up over a mountain’. Dk ix, M 788.
nūn harv cē ēn zan kird ud virāst, man-z hāmgōnag niyābag kirdan ‘now anything this woman did and arranged, is likewise suitable to do for me’. TM 45
šāh dast šust, cē xvad-iz ō nahcihr franaftan būd ‘the king washed his hands, for he himself was to go hunting’. TM 3
 

4.2.4.4.

An infinitive accompanied by an adposition appears as an abstract noun.
 
ped burdan ī ō ānōh … ‘for the transport of [it] there …’. PHeidelberg Pahl. 21.
<ped> kanišn ī gyān, višuftan ī tan, ud āmār ī ped stwš [ud būdan ī ristāxēz ud tan ī pasēn], vidārdan ī Cinvad puhl, ud madan ī Sōšyāns, kirdan ī ristāxēz ud tan ī pasēn abēgumān būdan ‘to be without doubt (about) the giving up of the breathing soul, the scattering of the body, the settling of the accounts of the deceased, [the coming into being of the resurrection and the Future Body], the passing of the Bridge of the Accountant, the coming of Saošyaṇt, the making of the Resurrection and the Future Body’. CHP 16.
 
 

§ 5. Complex verbs

A large number of Pārsīg verbs are already the result of the welding of old verb stems to preverbs:
 
āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come’ < *ā + i;
framāy-/ framūdan ‘to order’ < *fra + mā (*fra-māi̯a-);
hambārdan ‘to store (up)’ < *ham + bar;
fragandan ‘to lay foundations’ < *fra + kan.
 
A “complex” verb is a sequence of words (particles, nouns) preceding a verb so that if it be welded with the verb, it alters the form, meaning, or argument structure of the “base” verb, for example:
 
frāz gīr-/ griftan ‘to begin, start’ (frāz adv. ‘forth; ahead, forward’ < *frāc-ā, gīr-/ griftan ‘to take, seize, hold’ < *gṛbi̯a-, OPers. gṛbāya-):
frāzgīr-išnīh ‘beginning, commencement’;
pāk dār-/ dāštan ‘to keep in cleanliness’ (pāk ‘clean, pure’ < *pau̯āka- and dār-/ dāštan ‘to keep, hold’ < OPers. dar, dāraya-):
pākdār-išnīh ‘keeping-in-cleanliness’.
 

5.1. Complex verbs with semi-prefixes

Semi-prefixes are particles that could be separately used in a phrase.
abar ‘over, up, above, on’ (OPers. upariy, Av. upairi adv., prev.).
abar āvar-/ āvurdan ‘to lift; send forth, emit’,
        bāmdād ka xvaršēd tēx abar āvurd. KAP 4.10
abar āxēz-/ āxistan ‘to get up, rise’,
        az vistarg abar āxēzed. XvR 2
abar āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come unto; rise on’,
          az ānōh kū xvaršēd ped rōz ī mahist abar āyed. Bd 56
abar bar-/ burdan ‘to bring on, confer; undertake’,
           šuhr ī gāv abar ō māh pāyag burd. Bd 94
abar dār-/ dāštan ‘to take; lift up; raise; take off’,
           ēn taxt ī man abar dāred. HHK 1
            tōšag … sāxtan ud abāg xvēš abar dāštan. Dk ix M 805
abar rasīdan ‘to approach, reach, come to; look after’.
              avēšān xēn ud avištāb abar rasēd. TM 7983 II
 
abāz ‘back, behind, again; re-’ < *apāc-ā.
abāz āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come back; come away (from)’,
          ka pēš az hāsr abāz ō rāstīh āyed. Dk viii, M 724
          abāz āmad pēš frēstag. TM 2 I
abāz dār-/ dāštan ‘to keep away, ward off, hold back’,
           ka xvarišn ud xvārišn az suy ud tišn pediš abāz dāred. F 25.2
            do tis ped dānāgīh abāz šāyed dāštan … DGO
abāz gīr-/ griftan ‘to take back, retake, recapture’,
              ka az šīr ī mādar abāz gīrend. MX 16.7
abāz gōb-/ guftan ‘to repeat; reply’,
               u-š xvadāvan abāz guft kū: cim rāy, tis-um vinast? TM 3
abāz kun-/ kirdan ‘to remake; open, disengage’, 
               zafar abāz kuned.  MX 21.12
                peyrōg ī az hān brāh abāz kird. Dk iii, M 406
abāz šav-/ šudan ‘to go back’, 
              abāz ō kū šavam ? Dk vi, M 537
abāz vard-, gard-/ vaštan, gaštan ‘to go back, return; renounce’.
hān vāxš guft kū-t an nē padīrem, abāz vard kū āmad hē ud nihuft az pēš man. TM 2 I
              pez hān rāh, dēn andar sagestān abāz gašt. ASS
 
andar ‘in, among’ (OPers. antar, Av. aṇtarǝ adv., prep., prev.).
andar āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come in; come out’,
          hāmin andar āyed. Bd 195
          vas jōrdāy andar āyed. HAM 91
andar dān-/ dānistan ‘to understand, comprehend’,
             ka-z ped ōy andar dāned kū-m cāšt. H 14.2
andar gīr-/ griftan ‘to undertake, assume; catch’, 
         kār ī frazāmēnīdan nē šāyed andar nē griftan. AV 46
            vas dēv-iz andar grift. J 4
andar šav-/ šudan ‘to enter; penetrate; contemplate deeply; set’. 
            ka andar ō xānag šavē. Dk ix, M 808
            az ānōh kū ped rōz ī keh (xvaršēd) andar šaved. Bd 56
            ēdōn andar šud hum … HKR 14
 
bē/ ba ‘out, away’ < *bai̯d.
bē bar-/ burdan ‘to take away, carry off’ (opp. andar āvar-/ āvurdan),
                āštīh bē bared, ud anāštīh andar āvared. MX 16.35
                kē-m dēv ud druxš aziš ba burd. TM 3
bē kun-/ kirdan ‘to send out, expel, remove’,
               Ahrmen az gēhān ēdōn bē šāyed kirdan. Dk vi, M 530  
            dā zīndag drahnā hān bann nē ped mēnōg ī veh ud nē ped mēnōg ī vattar az grīv bē kirdan nē tuvān. CHP 31
bē šav-/ šudan ‘to go away; expire’,
          xvāstag bē šaved.  HHK 6
         zamīg az bar bē šaved.  J 16
         xvadāy az ēdar bē šud. PGM II 4
bē uzīh-/ uzīhistan ‘to be led out’,
            hān ped ōy āyēb aziš ba uzīhād, ud pāk bavād, ud ō xvar ud māh ahrāmād. TM 470
bē vider-/ vidaštan ‘to depart; pass away, die’. 
           u-m ōy ī pid ped aburnāyīh bē vidurd. HKR 6
             tis ī pēš bē videred bē nigered. AV 46
 
frāz ‘in front, ahead, forth, forward’ < *frāc-ā.
frāz āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come forward, come near (to), approach’,
          frāz ō xvadāvan āmad u-š ped sar saxvan ō xvadāvan ōh guft kū: mā drist avar! TM 3
             man … anāgīh nē baved ī-m frāz aviš mad. VAM 26
frāz bar-/ burdan ‘to bring forward, offer’,
            u-š … hōm frāz burd.  Dk vii, M 606
            ped ahunved gāh frāz bared mānbedān (rāy). ŠnŠ 13.15
frāz dān-/ dānistan ‘to know well’,
            kē hān ī dādestān az srav bē frāz dāned. F 5
frāz rasīdan ‘to come forth/ about, arrive’,
           ka-š škeftīh abar frāz rased. RP 62.24
            kē ped duz frāz rased. Dk viii, M 722
            ped kār ī frāz rased. Dk vi, M 481
frāz šav-/ šudan ‘to go forth, step forward’. 
            sag ud vay frāz šavend. VZ 30.32      
            āxvarrsālār frāz šud. HKR 110
 
frōd ‘down, downwards’ < OPers. fravatah.
frōd āvar-/ āvurdan ‘to bring down’,     
             frōd āvurdan ī sar ‘to bow down in deference’. PDK 52
frōd āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come down, descend’,      
            cōn rōvn [ī] frōd āyed abar sar, ud abar rēš, rēš ī ahrūn ī frōd āyed. Ps 132.2
frōd ōftādan ‘to fall down’, frōd ōbastan , frōd kaftan  
            ēg hān zadzahag āz, ī az asmān frōd kaft, ud ped draxt ud urvar peymuxt, ud az draxt ud urvar avēšān mazanān ud asrēštārān abgānagān, kē az asmān frōd ōbest hend, peymuxt. TM 7984 I
frōd šav-/ šudan ‘to go down (of the sun); sink’,     
              ped āb frōd šavend.  Bd 113    
             (ānōh) kū xvaršēd frōd šaved. MX 44.14
frōd vard-/ vaštan ‘to decline, fall into decadence’.  
              frōd vaštan ī xēm ud xrad az ērān dehān. Dk ix, M 792
 
ped ‘in, on, upon, at, by, through; against’ (OPers. patiy, Av. paiti).
ped dār-/ dāštan ‘to take for, consider as, hold by; foster’. Welded in Persian:
          ped farrox abāyed dāštan. HKR 11
          ped rāst sazed dāštan. ŠGV 15.9
          hān kē rōšn nimūdan ped dānāgīh dēnāgāhīh dāštan. Dk iv, M 414
           ped ē dāred kū. Bd 188
 
par/ per ‘against, opposite to, towards’ (OPers. pariy, Av. pairi).
par ēst-/ ēstādan ‘to stand close by; obstruct’. Old *pari stā has already been welded in perist- ‘to serve’.
hān ōy pēš tazīd [kū: pēš Zardušt par ēstād]. Dk vii, M 616
          pēš ī druz ī mēnōg par ēsted. Dk vi, M 544
 
pas ‘behind, after(wards)’ (OPers. pasā, Av. pasca).
pas rav-/ raftan ‘to go back’ (pas-ravišnīh ‘backward progress’).
          abāz pas raftan. Dk ix, M 804
 
pēš/ pēšī ‘before, in front of’ (OPers. paišiyā).
pēš gōb-/ guftan ‘to foretell’.  
        ēn hān ī pēš gōbum. ZVY 2.63
 
tar ‘through, across, aside’ (OPers. tarah, Av. tarō).
tar kun-/ kirdan ‘to despise’,
            do hend kē xvēštan tar nē kunend. HOD 15
            bēšīd ud tar kird.  MX 2.132
           tar ud xvār kird.  ŠGV 11.56
tar men-/ menīdan ‘to scorn’.
           nē avvēned ud tar nē mened. Dk vi, M 542
          avēšān-z kē Ohrmazd tar menend. Dk ix, M 807
 
ul ‘up’ (Av. ǝrǝδβa- adj. ‘upright’, ǝrǝδβaya adv. ‘standing up’, Khot. ula- ‘up’).
ul āhanz-, āhenz-/ āhaxtan, āhixtan ‘to draw up, pull up’, 
          Ahrmen ud dēvān az hāmkišvar ahī ul āhenzād, ud ō xvar ud māh ahrāmād. TM 7984 I
ul āxēz-/ āxistan ‘to rise’, 
       az xvaran ul āxist. TM 3
ul āy-/ (ā)madan ‘to come up, swell’, 
       ul āyed ud frōd šaved. Bd 83
ul ēst-/ ēstādan ‘to rise, stand up’,
             andar mard ud dēn ul ēsted, Dk vi, M 535
            abar rāstīh ul ēsted. M 576
ul šav-/ šudan ‘to go up’ 
            ped kōf-ē ul vurraved šudan. Dk ix, M 788
 
 

5.2. Verb locutions

A sequence of words including a verb and its complements that functions syntactically as a verb forms a verb locution.
 
u-š bālēn nišast, ud drūd pursīd ‘and he sat at his bedside, and inquired after his health’. ŠGV 14.41.
gōš andar dāred ašmā vehān ī ēdar mad ēsted ‘Be all ears (= listen), you good ones who have come here!’. SS 2.
gōš andar dāred pahlumīhā, mardōmān kē hed mazdesn ī kišvar. HDM 1
sālārīh ī dūdag abāz ō bun šaved ‘the guardianship shall return to the original family’. MHD 25.
pas frēdōn ō var frazdān nīd, ud ped nihān dāšt ‘then Θraētaona conducted (her) to the lake Frazdānu and kept her hidden’. ASS 7.
šāhān šāh andar zamān rēdak ō pēš xvāst ‘the king of kings immediately summoned the boy’. HKR 112.
harv kē nē tuvān būd vizārdan, ā-š frāz grift ud bē ōzad ‘anyone who was not able to solve [the riddle], he seized and killed him’. MJF 1.
 

5.2.1.

The Pārsīg uses a special form of verb locution to impart emphasis. In a cognate object-verb structure the object bears the adverbial emphasis:

Stem.past Stem.present-ending (of the same verb):

u-mān Ohrmazd-mubed hān xvand xvānem kē mēnōgvēnišnīh andar amāh pēdāgīhist ‘and, verily, we shall call that [person] ‘High-priest of Ahura Mazdā’ by whom has been made manifest to us the spiritual insight (or, the vision of the world of thought)’. Dk iv, M 413.
u-mān frašn-vizārīh mēnōg-vēnišnīh gētīg-handāzag-nimāyišnīhā-z harv do ēvēnag spurrīg azišān xvāst xvāhem ‘and we definitely request of him the explanation of [difficult] questions, according to the vision of the world of thought and like a cosmorama, both these kinds in complete manner’. Dk iv, M 413.

Stem.present-āg (or, -išn) Stem.present-ending (of the same verb):

nūn ka-mān dēn ped stī bē dīd kas-iz agdēnīh bē nē hilem, u-š abar toxšāg toxšem ‘now that we have seen the Religion in person (as a real corpus), we shall no longer let anyone [to be] of evil religion, and we shall exercise greater zeal’. Dk iv, M 413.
vas xvāyišn lābakkarīhā xvāhed ‘he implores with supplicating a lot’. MX 2.165.
 
 
 

6. Verbal particles

6.1. bē/ ba, negated bē nē, bē mā.

It ought to be distinguished from the preverb bē which gives a new semantic meaning to the verb. It does not function on the level of tense or mood, but preceding a verb accentuates it.
 
bē nigered kū cōn appār baved xvadāyīh, xvāstag bē šaved, xīr ī stabr ud dōšārm ud dušxvārīh ud driyušīh bē videred ‘Notice that how the authority will be removed, the property will go away, and the huge wealth, and love, and difficulty, and poverty will pass’. HHK 6.
kū-š ravāg bē kird ‘i.e., he made it current’. Y 57.24.
hān kenīg az zarīg ba murd ‘that girl died of grief’. TM2 I.
abāz ped hušnūdīh bē ō garōdmān bē ravend ‘they return to Paradise with satisfaction’. Āfrīnagān ī fravardīgān 6.
gētīg ped kas bē nē hišt hend nē kōšk ud xān-u-mān ‘the material world has not been left for anybody, neither a palace nor house and hearth’. HDM 18.
tan rāy, āzarm ī ruvān bē mā hiled! ‘For the body’s sake do not abandon the respect of the soul!’ CHP 56.
 

6.2. hamē/ hamēv from *hama and *-ai̯u̯a.

It is an adverb meaning ‘always, forever’, and preceding a verb or occurring in a verb locution gives the verb a continuous sense.
 
guft kū-šān mard-ē dīd kē xar-ē hamē marzed ‘he said: They saw a man who was fucking an ass’. ŠGV 11.213-214.
gēhān abar ašmā hamē baxšam ‘I am going to divide the world (Xvaniriθa) among you’. J 4.
u-š kar māhīg pērāmōn hamē garded, u-š vak ud abārīg xrafstar aziš abāz hamē dāred ‘and the Kara fish is turning round it (the sea), and is keeping the frog and other noxious creatures away from it’. MX 62.30.
avēšān hyōnān kē-šān aspadāg ō ērānšahr hamē kird ‘the Huns who were making incursions into Ērānšahr’. Bd 215.
 

6.3. ē/ ēv (Parth. hēb) from *h-ai̯a-iθ and -ba, negated mā ēv.

A verb or a verb locution with ē/ ēv expresses prescription, wish, entreaty, and the like. See 3.1.3.1.
The particle ē/ ēv (< *ai̯u̯a, Av. aēva, Parth. hēb) followed by the finite verb of the present yields an analytic form of the optative present. However, the third person singular of b-, bav-/ būdan may take the subjunctive ending °ād or the optative ending °ē(h).
ēv nihed ‘let (him) place’ from nih-/ nihādan ‘to put’,
pāy ped ēn darg ēv nihed. Š H  
ēv vihēzed ‘may he travel’.
              šāhān šāh ped kirbagīh az Armen ōrōn ō Ērānšahr ēv vihēzed. N P 18
ē handāzed ‘may you cast’.
           rāstnigerišnīh ē handāzed ped hān ī dānāg cašm. ŠGV 11.1-2
ē bavād ‘let it be’.
           ā-mān kār ud dādestān ē bavād. Y 65.7
          vīrāyā-m gām pet šavān; u-m mā ēv bavād pādixšā pediš drōzan. Ps 118.133
ēv bēh ‘let it be’’.
            kē ēn nāmag vēnād ud pehipursād hān ped yazdān ud xvadāyān ud xvēš ruvān rād ud rāst ēv bē(h). KNRb 13-15
(mā) ēv nišīyum ‘let me (not) stay’.
           an ped Elefantineh mā ē nišīyam. PGMII 1
ē baved! ‘may you be’.
            az gōhr ped rāmišn ē baved. PDoc 22
 

6.4. kāc ‘I wish, if only, would that’ (cf. OPers. kā, Pers. کاش).

The particle kāc is used with past optative forms to talk about wishes.
 
kāc ka man xvēš hē ‘would that it belonged to me’. Dk vi, M 532.
ēgiš kāmag ōn kū-m kāc vēš kird hē ‘then he aspires (with regret) thus: I wish I had done more’. Dk vi, M 476.
ōy-iz ī driyuštum mardōm kāmag ōn kū: kāc driyuštar būd hē u-m nūn āmār andak ud xvārdar abar būd hē ‘even the poorest man will desire thus: I wish I had been poorer, and now the reckoning would be more trivial and easier’. Dk vi, M 519.
kāc nē zād būd hēnd ‘would that they had not been born’. Dk iii, M 192.
 

6.5. ōh ‘thus, in that way’ (OPers. avaθā adv., Av. avaθa)

 
ped xvaran ānōh nišīyed kū-tān ōh nišāyānd! ‘at a banquet, sit down at [the place] where they make you sit!’ VAM 17.
ped xēšm ō xvadāvan ōh guft kū ‘in anger he said thus to the lord (Mānī) …’. TM 3.
u-šān Xradešahr yazd pesox ōh dayād kū: man wēned ud šād baved! ‘and Xradešahr Yazd (god of the world of wisdom) will answer thus to them: See me and be happy!’ TM 475.
ōh bēh/ ōh-bēh! < *au̯aθā bai̯θ < *°bai̯t ‘so be it, Amen!’ TM 28 II
 
 
 

7. Negations

7.1. nē ‘not’ < *naid (OPers. naiy, Av. nōit̰)

The negative particle nē is often used with indicative verbs.
 
agar pesox nē dahē, ayāb gōbē kū nē dānum ‘if you don’t answer, or you say: I do not know …’. MJF 1.
ud ēn-z nē kuned. ‘and this also you do not exercise’. TM 3.
 

7.1.1. nēst ‘is not’ is the result of the welding of nē to ast.

 
kē-t hāvend nē ast ‘you who have no equal’. TM 2 I.
xrad ka-š menīdārīh nēst; ud hunar ka-š tarmenišnīh nēst; vīrumandīh ka-š ahlemōgīh nēst; vyāxanīh ka-š kēnvarīh nēst ‘wisdom when there is no arrogance; talent (or, skill) when there is no insolence; scholarship when there is no heresy; eloquence (heroism) when there is no vengeance’. AV 86-89.
 

7.2. mā/ ma prohibitive ‘let not’ (OPers. mā, Av. mā)

The negative particle mā is used with imperative, subjunctive or optative verbs.
 
bīm mā dār! ‘be not afraid! ZVY 6.13.
vaddil mā bāš! ‘do not be disheartened! TM 2 I.
Srōš ī ahlavī vānīdār ī dēvān āz ud Xēšm ud Hēz az tō dūr dārād ud kušād ī ō tō mā karānd abēdād ‘may Sraoša aṣya, the vanquisher of the Daēva, keep Āzi (greed), Aēšma (wrath), and Haēcah (drought) away from you, may he combat them, so that they may not do injustice to you’. ŠnŠ 22.17.
u-m mā ēv bavād pādixšā pediš drōzan ‘and let the deceitful not have dominion over me’. Ps 118.133.
dudīg andarz kū: drōzan mā hēb bavend, ud yak ō yak niždād mā hēb bavend ‘the second precept is thus: they shall not be deceitful, and they, one towards the other, shall not be unjust’. TM 5794 II.